Computer security is a general term that covers a wide area of computing and information processing. Industries that depend on computer systems and networks to conduct daily business transactions and access critical information regard their data as an important part of their overall assets. Several terms and metrics have entered our daily business vocabulary, such as total cost of ownership (TCO), return on investment (ROI), and quality of service (QoS). Using these metrics, industries can calculate aspects such as data integrity and high-availability (HA) as part of their planning and process management costs. In some industries, such as electronic commerce, the availability and trustworthiness of data can mean the difference between success and failure.

Enterprises in every industry rely on regulations and rules that are set by standards-making bodies such as the American Medical Association (AMA) or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The same concepts hold true for information security. Many security consultants and vendors agree upon the standard security model known as CIA, or Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This three-tiered model is a generally accepted component to assessing risks of sensitive information and establishing security policy. The following describes the CIA model in further detail:

Red Hat Enterprise Linux undergoes several security certifications, such as FIPS 140-2 or Common Criteria (CC), to ensure that industry best practices are followed.

The RHEL 8 core crypto components Knowledgebase article provides an overview of the Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 core crypto components, documenting which are they, how are they selected, how are they integrated into the operating system, how do they support hardware security modules and smart cards, and how do crypto certifications apply to them.

Computer security is often divided into three distinct main categories, commonly referred to as controls:

These three broad categories define the main objectives of proper security implementation. Within these controls are sub-categories that further detail the controls and how to implement them.

Given time, resources, and motivation, an attacker can break into nearly any system. All of the security procedures and technologies currently available cannot guarantee that any systems are completely safe from intrusion. Routers help secure gateways to the Internet. Firewalls help secure the edge of the network. Virtual Private Networks safely pass data in an encrypted stream. Intrusion detection systems warn you of malicious activity. However, the success of each of these technologies is dependent upon a number of variables, including:

Given the dynamic state of data systems and technologies, securing corporate resources can be quite complex. Due to this complexity, it is often difficult to find expert resources for all of your systems. While it is possible to have personnel knowledgeable in many areas of information security at a high level, it is difficult to retain staff who are experts in more than a few subject areas. This is mainly because each subject area of information security requires constant attention and focus. Information security does not stand still.

A vulnerability assessment is an internal audit of your network and system security; the results of which indicate the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of your network. Typically, vulnerability assessment starts with a reconnaissance phase, during which important data regarding the target systems and resources is gathered. This phase leads to the system readiness phase, whereby the target is essentially checked for all known vulnerabilities. The readiness phase culminates in the reporting phase, where the findings are classified into categories of high, medium, and low risk; and methods for improving the security (or mitigating the risk of vulnerability) of the target are discussed

If you were to perform a vulnerability assessment of your home, you would likely check each door to your home to see if they are closed and locked. You would also check every window, making sure that they closed completely and latch correctly. This same concept applies to systems, networks, and electronic data. Malicious users are the thieves and vandals of your data. Focus on their tools, mentality, and motivations, and you can then react swiftly to their actions.

The following table details some of the most common exploits and entry points used by intruders to access organizational network resources. Key to these common exploits are the explanations of how they are performed and how administrators can properly safeguard their network against such attacks.

Password protection for the BIOS (or BIOS equivalent) and the boot loader can prevent unauthorized users who have physical access to systems from booting using removable media or obtaining root privileges through single user mode. The security measures you should take to protect against such attacks depends both on the sensitivity of the information about the workstation and the location of the machine.

For example, if a machine is used in a trade show and contains no sensitive information, then it may not be critical to prevent such attacks. However, if an employee’s laptop with private, unencrypted SSH keys for the corporate network is left unattended at that same trade show, it could lead to a major security breach with ramifications for the entire company.

If the workstation is located in a place where only authorized or trusted people have access, however, then securing the BIOS or the boot loader may not be necessary.

Red Hat recommends creating separate partitions for the /boot, /, /home, /tmp, and /var/tmp/ directories.

When installing Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, the installation medium represents a snapshot of the system at a particular time. Because of this, it may not be up-to-date with the latest security fixes and may be vulnerable to certain issues that were fixed only after the system provided by the installation medium was released.

When installing a potentially vulnerable operating system, always limit exposure only to the closest necessary network zone. The safest choice is the “no network” zone, which means to leave your machine disconnected during the installation process. In some cases, a LAN or intranet connection is sufficient while the Internet connection is the riskiest. To follow the best security practices, choose the closest zone with your repository while installing Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 from a network.

It is best practice to install only the packages you will use because each piece of software on your computer could possibly contain a vulnerability. If you are installing from the DVD media, take the opportunity to select exactly what packages you want to install during the installation. If you find you need another package, you can always add it to the system later.

The following steps are the security-related procedures that should be performed immediately after installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8.

The Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) Publication 140 is a series of computer security standards developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to ensure the quality of cryptographic modules. The FIPS 140 standard ensures that cryptographic tools implement their algorithms correctly. Runtime cryptographic algorithm and integrity self-tests are some of the mechanisms to ensure a system uses cryptography that meets the requirements of the standard.

To ensure that your RHEL system generates and uses all cryptographic keys only with FIPS-approved algorithms, you must switch RHEL to FIPS mode.

You can enable FIPS mode by using one of the following methods:

If you aim for FIPS compliance, start the installation in FIPS mode. This avoids cryptographic key material regeneration and reevaluation of the compliance of the resulting system associated with converting already deployed systems.

To operate a FIPS-compliant system, create all cryptographic key material in FIPS mode. Furthermore, the cryptographic key material must never leave the FIPS environment unless it is securely wrapped and never unwrapped in non-FIPS environments.

Switching the system to FIPS mode by using the fips-mode-setup tool does not guarantee compliance with the FIPS 140 standard. Re-generating all cryptographic keys after setting the system to FIPS mode may not be possible. For example, in the case of an existing IdM realm with users' cryptographic keys you cannot re-generate all the keys. If you cannot start the installation in FIPS mode, always enable FIPS mode as the first step after the installation, before you make any post-installation configuration steps or install any workloads.

The fips-mode-setup tool also uses the FIPS system-wide cryptographic policy internally. But on top of what the update-crypto-policies --set FIPS command does, fips-mode-setup ensures the installation of the FIPS dracut module by using the fips-finish-install tool, it also adds the fips=1 boot option to the kernel command line and regenerates the initial RAM disk.

Furthermore, enforcement of restrictions required in FIPS mode depends on the contents of the /proc/sys/crypto/fips_enabled file. If the file contains 1, RHEL core cryptographic components switch to mode, in which they use only FIPS-approved implementations of cryptographic algorithms. If /proc/sys/crypto/fips_enabled contains 0, the cryptographic components do not enable their FIPS mode.

The FIPS system-wide cryptographic policy helps to configure higher-level restrictions. Therefore, communication protocols supporting cryptographic agility do not announce ciphers that the system refuses when selected. For example, the ChaCha20 algorithm is not FIPS-approved, and the FIPS cryptographic policy ensures that TLS servers and clients do not announce the TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_CHACHA20_POLY1305_SHA256 TLS cipher suite, because any attempt to use such a cipher fails.

If you operate RHEL in FIPS mode and use an application providing it’s own FIPS-mode-related configuration options, ignore these options and the corresponding application guidance. The system running in FIPS mode and the system-wide cryptographic policies enforce only FIPS-compliant cryptography. For example, the Node.js configuration option --enable-fips is ignored if the system runs in FIPS mode. If you use the --enable-fips option on a system not running in FIPS mode, you do not meet the FIPS-140 compliance requirements.

To enable the cryptographic module self-checks mandated by the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 140, enable FIPS mode during the system installation.

When a system-wide policy is set up, applications in RHEL follow it and refuse to use algorithms and protocols that do not meet the policy, unless you explicitly request the application to do so. That is, the policy applies to the default behavior of applications when running with the system-provided configuration but you can override it if required.

RHEL 8 contains the following predefined policies:

Red Hat continuously adjusts all policy levels so that all libraries provide secure defaults, except when using the LEGACY policy. Even though the LEGACY profile does not provide secure defaults, it does not include any algorithms that are easily exploitable. As such, the set of enabled algorithms or acceptable key sizes in any provided policy may change during the lifetime of Red Hat Enterprise Linux.

Such changes reflect new security standards and new security research. If you must ensure interoperability with a specific system for the whole lifetime of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, you should opt-out from the system-wide cryptographic policies for components that interact with that system or re-enable specific algorithms using custom cryptographic policies.

Tool for managing the cryptographic policies

To view or change the current system-wide cryptographic policy, use the update-crypto-policies tool, for example:

$ update-crypto-policies --show
DEFAULT
# update-crypto-policies --set FUTURE
Setting system policy to FUTURE

To ensure that the change of the cryptographic policy is applied, restart the system.

Strong cryptographic defaults by removing insecure cipher suites and protocols

The following list contains cipher suites and protocols removed from the core cryptographic libraries in RHEL. Because they are not present in the sources, or their support is disabled during the build, applications cannot use them.

Cipher suites and protocols disabled in all policy levels

The following cipher suites and protocols are disabled in all cryptographic policies. They can be enabled only by an explicit configuration of individual applications.

Cipher suites and protocols enabled in the cryptographic policies

Each cryptographic policy enables specific cipher suites and protocols:

The default system-wide cryptographic policy in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 does not allow communication using older, insecure protocols. For environments that require to be compatible with Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 and in some cases also with earlier releases, the less secure LEGACY policy level is available.

You can set one of system-wide cryptographic policies and subpolicies directly in the RHEL web console interface. Besides the four predefined system-wide cryptographic policies, you can also apply the following combinations of policies and subpolicies through the graphical interface now:

The system-wide cryptographic policies contain a policy level that enables cryptographic algorithms in accordance with the requirements by the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 140. The fips-mode-setup tool that enables or disables FIPS mode internally uses the FIPS system-wide cryptographic policy.

Switching the system to FIPS mode by using the FIPS system-wide cryptographic policy does not guarantee compliance with the FIPS 140 standard. Re-generating all cryptographic keys after setting the system to FIPS mode may not be possible. For example, in the case of an existing IdM realm with users' cryptographic keys you cannot re-generate all the keys.

The fips-mode-setup tool uses the FIPS policy internally. But on top of what the update-crypto-policies command with the --set FIPS option does, fips-mode-setup ensures the installation of the FIPS dracut module by using the fips-finish-install tool, it also adds the fips=1 boot option to the kernel command line and regenerates the initial RAM disk.

To enable the full set of cryptographic module self-checks mandated by the Federal Information Processing Standard Publication 140-2 (FIPS mode), the host system kernel must be running in FIPS mode. Depending on the version of your host system, enabling FIPS mode on containers either is fully automatic or requires only one command.

To pass all relevant cryptographic certifications, such as FIPS 140, use libraries from the core cryptographic components set. These libraries, except from libgcrypt, also follow the RHEL system-wide cryptographic policies.

See the RHEL core cryptographic components article for an overview of the core cryptographic components, the information on how are they selected, how are they integrated into the operating system, how do they support hardware security modules and smart cards, and how do cryptographic certifications apply to them.

In addition to the following table, in some RHEL 8 Z-stream releases (for example, 8.1.1), the Firefox browser packages have been updated, and they contain a separate copy of the NSS cryptography library. This way, Red Hat wants to avoid the disruption of rebasing such a low-level component in a patch release. As a result, these Firefox packages do not use a FIPS 140-2-validated module.

You can customize cryptographic settings used by your application preferably by configuring supported cipher suites and protocols directly in the application.

You can also remove a symlink related to your application from the /etc/crypto-policies/back-ends directory and replace it with your customized cryptographic settings. This configuration prevents the use of system-wide cryptographic policies for applications that use the excluded back end. Furthermore, this modification is not supported by Red Hat.

$ wget --secure-protocol=TLSv1_1 --ciphers="SECURE128" https://example.com

$ curl https://example.com --ciphers '@SECLEVEL=0:DES-CBC3-SHA:RSA-DES-CBC3-SHA'

Use this procedure to adjust the set of enabled cryptographic algorithms or protocols.

You can either apply custom subpolicies on top of an existing system-wide cryptographic policy or define such a policy from scratch.

The concept of scoped policies allows enabling different sets of algorithms for different back ends. You can limit each configuration directive to specific protocols, libraries, or services.

Furthermore, directives can use asterisks for specifying multiple values using wildcards.

The /etc/crypto-policies/state/CURRENT.pol file lists all settings in the currently applied system-wide cryptographic policy after wildcard expansion. To make your cryptographic policy more strict, consider using values listed in the /usr/share/crypto-policies/policies/FUTURE.pol file.

You can find example subpolicies in the /usr/share/crypto-policies/policies/modules/ directory. The subpolicy files in this directory contain also descriptions in lines that are commented out.

Because the SHA-1 hash function has an inherently weak design, and advancing cryptanalysis has made it vulnerable to attacks, RHEL 8 does not use SHA-1 by default. Nevertheless, some third-party applications, for example, public signatures, still use SHA-1. To disable the use of SHA-1 in signature algorithms on your system, you can use the NO-SHA1 policy module.

If your scenario requires disabling a specific key exchange (KEX) algorithm combination, for example, diffie-hellman-group-exchange-sha1, but you still want to use both the relevant KEX and the algorithm in other combinations, see Steps to disable the diffie-hellman-group1-sha1 algorithm in SSH for instructions on opting out of system-wide crypto-policies for SSH and configuring SSH directly.

The following steps demonstrate customizing the system-wide cryptographic policies by a complete policy file.

In a crypto_policies System Role playbook, you can define the parameters for the crypto_policies configuration file according to your preferences and limitations.

If you do not configure any variables, the System Role does not configure the system and only reports the facts.

You can use the crypto_policies System Role to configure a large number of managed nodes consistently from a single control node.

Public-Key Cryptography Standard (PKCS) #11 defines an application programming interface (API) to cryptographic devices that hold cryptographic information and perform cryptographic functions.

PKCS #11 introduces the cryptographic token, an object that presents each hardware or software device to applications in a unified manner. Therefore, applications view devices such as smart cards, which are typically used by persons, and hardware security modules, which are typically used by computers, as PKCS #11 cryptographic tokens.

A PKCS #11 token can store various object types including a certificate; a data object; and a public, private, or secret key. These objects are uniquely identifiable through the PKCS #11 Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) scheme.

A PKCS #11 URI is a standard way to identify a specific object in a PKCS #11 module according to the object attributes. This enables you to configure all libraries and applications with the same configuration string in the form of a URI.

RHEL provides the OpenSC PKCS #11 driver for smart cards by default. However, hardware tokens and HSMs can have their own PKCS #11 modules that do not have their counterpart in the system. You can register such PKCS #11 modules with the p11-kit tool, which acts as a wrapper over the registered smart-card drivers in the system.

To make your own PKCS #11 module work on the system, add a new text file to the /etc/pkcs11/modules/ directory

You can add your own PKCS #11 module into the system by creating a new text file in the /etc/pkcs11/modules/ directory. For example, the OpenSC configuration file in p11-kit looks as follows:

$ cat /usr/share/p11-kit/modules/opensc.module
module: opensc-pkcs11.so

Red Hat Enterprise Linux enables you to use RSA and ECDSA keys stored on a smart card on OpenSSH clients. Use this procedure to enable authentication using a smart card instead of using a password.

If you skip the id= part of a PKCS #11 URI, OpenSSH loads all keys that are available in the proxy module. This can reduce the amount of typing required:

$ ssh -i pkcs11: example.com
Enter PIN for 'SSH key':
[example.com] $

Authentication by using smart cards in applications may increase security and simplify automation. You can integrate the Public Key Cryptography Standard (PKCS) #11 URIs into your application by using the following methods:

The Apache HTTP server can work with private keys stored on hardware security modules (HSMs), which helps to prevent the keys' disclosure and man-in-the-middle attacks. Note that this usually requires high-performance HSMs for busy servers.

For secure communication in the form of the HTTPS protocol, the Apache HTTP server (httpd) uses the OpenSSL library. OpenSSL does not support PKCS #11 natively. To use HSMs, you have to install the openssl-pkcs11 package, which provides access to PKCS #11 modules through the engine interface. You can use a PKCS #11 URI instead of a regular file name to specify a server key and a certificate in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file, for example:

SSLCertificateFile    "pkcs11:id=%01;token=softhsm;type=cert"
SSLCertificateKeyFile "pkcs11:id=%01;token=softhsm;type=private?pin-value=111111"

Install the httpd-manual package to obtain complete documentation for the Apache HTTP Server, including TLS configuration. The directives available in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file are described in detail in the /usr/share/httpd/manual/mod/mod_ssl.html file.

The Nginx HTTP server can work with private keys stored on hardware security modules (HSMs), which helps to prevent the keys' disclosure and man-in-the-middle attacks. Note that this usually requires high-performance HSMs for busy servers.

Because Nginx also uses the OpenSSL for cryptographic operations, support for PKCS #11 must go through the openssl-pkcs11 engine. Nginx currently supports only loading private keys from an HSM, and a certificate must be provided separately as a regular file. Modify the ssl_certificate and ssl_certificate_key options in the server section of the /etc/nginx/nginx.conf configuration file:

ssl_certificate     /path/to/cert.pem
ssl_certificate_key "engine:pkcs11:pkcs11:token=softhsm;id=%01;type=private?pin-value=111111";

Note that the engine:pkcs11: prefix is needed for the PKCS #11 URI in the Nginx configuration file. This is because the other pkcs11 prefix refers to the engine name.

The Personal Computer/Smart Card (PC/SC) protocol specifies a standard for integrating smart cards and their readers into computing systems. In RHEL, the pcsc-lite package provides middleware to access smart cards that use the PC/SC API. A part of this package, the pcscd (PC/SC Smart Card) daemon, ensures that the system can access a smart card using the PC/SC protocol.

Because access-control mechanisms built into smart cards, such as PINs, PIN pads, and biometrics, do not cover all possible threats, RHEL uses the polkit framework for more robust access control. The polkit authorization manager can grant access to privileged operations. In addition to granting access to disks, you can use polkit also to specify policies for securing smart cards. For example, you can define which users can perform which operations with a smart card.

After installing the pcsc-lite package and starting the pcscd daemon, the system enforces policies defined in the /usr/share/polkit-1/actions/ directory. The default system-wide policy is in the /usr/share/polkit-1/actions/org.debian.pcsc-lite.policy file. Polkit policy files use the XML format and the syntax is described in the polkit(8) man page.

The polkitd service monitors the /etc/polkit-1/rules.d/ and /usr/share/polkit-1/rules.d/ directories for any changes in rule files stored in these directories. The files contain authorization rules in JavaScript format. System administrators can add custom rule files in both directories, and polkitd reads them in lexical order based on their file name. If two files have the same names, then the file in /etc/polkit-1/rules.d/ is read first.

Polkit policies that are automatically enforced after you install the pcsc-lite package and start the pcscd daemon may ask for authentication in the user’s session even if the user does not directly interact with a smart card. In GNOME, you can see the following error message:

Authentication is required to access the PC/SC daemon

Note that the system can install the pcsc-lite package as a dependency when you install other packages related to smart cards such as opensc.

If your scenario does not require any interaction with smart cards and you want to prevent displaying authorization requests for the PC/SC daemon, you can remove the pcsc-lite package. Keeping the minimum of necessary packages is a good security practice anyway.

If you use smart cards, start troubleshooting by checking the rules in the system-provided policy file at /usr/share/polkit-1/actions/org.debian.pcsc-lite.policy. You can add your custom rule files to the policy in the /etc/polkit-1/rules.d/ directory, for example, 03-allow-pcscd.rules. Note that the rule files use the JavaScript syntax, the policy file is in the XML format.

To understand what authorization requests the system displays, check the Journal log, for example:

$ journalctl -b | grep pcsc
...
Process 3087 (user: 1001) is NOT authorized for action: access_pcsc
...

The previous log entry means that the user is not authorized to perform an action by the policy. You can solve this denial by adding a corresponding rule to /etc/polkit-1/rules.d/.

You can search also for log entries related to the polkitd unit, for example:

$ journalctl -u polkit
...
polkitd[NNN]: Error compiling script /etc/polkit-1/rules.d/00-debug-pcscd.rules
...
polkitd[NNN]: Operator of unix-session:c2 FAILED to authenticate to gain authorization for action org.debian.pcsc-lite.access_pcsc for unix-process:4800:14441 [/usr/libexec/gsd-smartcard] (owned by unix-user:group)
...

In the previous output, the first entry means that the rule file contains some syntax error. The second entry means that the user failed to gain the access to pcscd.

You can also list all applications that use the PC/SC protocol by a short script. Create an executable file, for example, pcsc-apps.sh, and insert the following code:

#!/bin/bash

cd /proc

for p in [0-9]*
do
	if grep libpcsclite.so.1.0.0 $p/maps &> /dev/null
	then
		echo -n "process: "
		cat $p/cmdline
		echo " ($p)"
	fi
done

Run the script as root:

# ./pcsc-apps.sh
process: /usr/libexec/gsd-smartcard (3048)
enable-sync --auto-ssl-client-auth --enable-crashpad (4828)
...

In the default configuration, the polkit authorization framework sends only limited information to the Journal log. You can extend polkit log entries related to the PC/SC protocol by adding new rules.

You can perform a fully automated compliance audit in Red Hat Enterprise Linux by using the following configuration compliance tools. These tools are based on the Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) standard and are designed for automated tailoring of compliance policies.

To perform automated compliance audits on multiple systems remotely, you can use the OpenSCAP solution for Red Hat Satellite.

You can remediate the RHEL system to align with a specific baseline. This example uses the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) profile, but you can remediate to align with any other profile provided by the SCAP Security Guide. For the details on listing the available profiles, see the Viewing profiles for configuration compliance section.

You can remediate your system to align with a specific baseline by using an Ansible playbook file from the SCAP Security Guide project. This example uses the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) profile, but you can remediate to align with any other profile provided by the SCAP Security Guide. For the details on listing the available profiles, see the Viewing profiles for configuration compliance section.

You can create an Ansible playbook containing only the remediations that are required to align your system with a specific baseline. This example uses the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) profile. With this procedure, you create a smaller playbook that does not cover already satisfied requirements. By following these steps, you do not modify your system in any way, you only prepare a file for later application.

Use this procedure to create a Bash script containing remediations that align your system with a security profile such as HIPAA. Using the following steps, you do not do any modifications to your system, you only prepare a file for later application.

SCAP Workbench, which is contained in the scap-workbench package, is a graphical utility that enables users to perform configuration and vulnerability scans on a single local or a remote system, perform remediation of the system, and generate reports based on scan evaluations. Note that SCAP Workbench has limited functionality compared with the oscap command-line utility. SCAP Workbench processes security content in the form of data stream files.

You can use the OpenSCAP suite to deploy RHEL systems that are compliant with a security profile, such as OSPP, PCI-DSS, and HIPAA profile, immediately after the installation process. Using this deployment method, you can apply specific rules that cannot be applied later using remediation scripts, for example, a rule for password strength and partitioning.

Use this procedure to find security vulnerabilities in a container or a container image.

Follow these steps to assess compliance of your container or a container image with a specific security baseline, such as Operating System Protection Profile (OSPP), Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS), and Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).

Use only the SCAP content provided in the particular minor release of RHEL. This is because components that participate in hardening are sometimes updated with new capabilities. SCAP content changes to reflect these updates, but it is not always backward compatible.

In the following tables, you can find the profiles provided in each minor version of RHEL, together with the version of the policy with which the profile aligns.

The following steps are necessary to install AIDE and to initiate its database.

After verifying the changes of your system, such as package updates or configuration files adjustments, Red Hat recommends updating your baseline AIDE database.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux provides several tools for checking and preserving the integrity of files and directories on your system. The following table helps you decide which tool better fits your scenario.

The integrity subsystem is the part of the kernel that maintains overall integrity of system data. This subsystem helps to keep the state of a system the same from the time it was built. By using this subsystem, you can prevent undesired modification of specific system files.

The kernel integrity subsystem consists of two major components:

The kernel integrity subsystem can use the Trusted Platform Module (TPM) to further harden system security.

A TPM is a hardware, firmware, or virtual component with integrated cryptographic keys, which is built according to the TPM specification by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG) for important cryptographic functions. TPMs are usually built as dedicated hardware attached to the platform’s motherboard. By providing cryptographic functions from a protected and tamper-proof area of the hardware chip, TPMs are protected from software-based attacks. TPMs provide the following features:

Trusted keys and encrypted keys are an important part of enhancing system security.

Trusted and encrypted keys are variable-length symmetric keys generated by the kernel that use the kernel keyring service. The integrity of the keys can be verified, which means that they can be used, for example, by the extended verification module (EVM) to verify and confirm the integrity of a running system. User-level programs can only access the keys in the form of encrypted blobs.

The master key is either a trusted key or a user key. If the master key is not trusted, the encrypted key is only as secure as the user key used to encrypt it.

You can improve system security by using the keyctl utility to create, export, load and update trusted keys.

You can improve system security on systems where a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) is not available by managing encrypted keys.

You can enable and configure Integrity measurement architecture (IMA) and extended verification module (EVM) to improve the security of the operating system.

In the measurement phase, you can create file hashes and store them as extended attributes (xattrs) of those files. With the file hashes, you can generate either an RSA-based digital signature or a Hash-based Message Authentication Code (HMAC-SHA1) and thus prevent offline tampering attacks on the extended attributes.

Linux Unified Key Setup-on-disk-format (LUKS) provides a set of tools that simplifies managing the encrypted devices. With LUKS, you can encrypt block devices and enable multiple user keys to decrypt a master key. For bulk encryption of the partition, use this master key.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux uses LUKS to perform block device encryption. By default, the option to encrypt the block device is unchecked during the installation. If you select the option to encrypt your disk, the system prompts you for a passphrase every time you boot the computer. This passphrase unlocks the bulk encryption key that decrypts your partition. If you want to modify the default partition table, you can select the partitions that you want to encrypt. This is set in the partition table settings.

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux, the default format for LUKS encryption is LUKS2. The old LUKS1 format remains fully supported and it is provided as a format compatible with earlier Red Hat Enterprise Linux releases. LUKS2 re-encryption is considered more robust and safe to use as compared to LUKS1 re-encryption.

The LUKS2 format enables future updates of various parts without a need to modify binary structures. Internally it uses JSON text format for metadata, provides redundancy of metadata, detects metadata corruption, and automatically repairs from a metadata copy.

LUKS2 provides several options that prioritize performance or data protection during the re-encryption process. It provides the following modes for the resilience option, and you can select any of these modes by using the cryptsetup reencrypt --resilience resilience-mode /dev/sdx command:

If a LUKS2 re-encryption process terminates unexpectedly by force, LUKS2 can perform the recovery in one of the following ways:

You can encrypt the existing data on a not yet encrypted device by using the LUKS2 format. A new LUKS header is stored in the head of the device.

You can encrypt existing data on a block device without creating free space for storing a LUKS header. The header is stored in a detached location, which also serves as an additional layer of security. The procedure uses the LUKS2 encryption format.

You can encrypt a blank block device, which you can use for an encrypted storage by using the LUKS2 format.

You can use the storage role to create and configure a volume encrypted with LUKS by running an Ansible playbook.

The Network Bound Disc Encryption (NBDE) is a subcategory of Policy-Based Decryption (PBD) that allows binding encrypted volumes to a special network server. The current implementation of the NBDE includes a Clevis pin for the Tang server and the Tang server itself.

In RHEL, NBDE is implemented through the following components and technologies:

Figure 12.1. NBDE scheme when using a LUKS1-encrypted volume. The luksmeta package is not used for LUKS2 volumes.

Tang is a server for binding data to network presence. It makes a system containing your data available when the system is bound to a certain secure network. Tang is stateless and does not require TLS or authentication. Unlike escrow-based solutions, where the server stores all encryption keys and has knowledge of every key ever used, Tang never interacts with any client keys, so it never gains any identifying information from the client.

Clevis is a pluggable framework for automated decryption. In NBDE, Clevis provides automated unlocking of LUKS volumes. The clevis package provides the client side of the feature.

A Clevis pin is a plug-in into the Clevis framework. One of such pins is a plug-in that implements interactions with the NBDE server — Tang.

Clevis and Tang are generic client and server components that provide network-bound encryption. In RHEL, they are used in conjunction with LUKS to encrypt and decrypt root and non-root storage volumes to accomplish Network-Bound Disk Encryption.

Both client- and server-side components use the José library to perform encryption and decryption operations.

When you begin provisioning NBDE, the Clevis pin for Tang server gets a list of the Tang server’s advertised asymmetric keys. Alternatively, since the keys are asymmetric, a list of Tang’s public keys can be distributed out of band so that clients can operate without access to the Tang server. This mode is called offline provisioning.

The Clevis pin for Tang uses one of the public keys to generate a unique, cryptographically-strong encryption key. Once the data is encrypted using this key, the key is discarded. The Clevis client should store the state produced by this provisioning operation in a convenient location. This process of encrypting data is the provisioning step.

The LUKS version 2 (LUKS2) is the default disk-encryption format in RHEL, hence, the provisioning state for NBDE is stored as a token in a LUKS2 header. The leveraging of provisioning state for NBDE by the luksmeta package is used only for volumes encrypted with LUKS1.

The Clevis pin for Tang supports both LUKS1 and LUKS2 without specification need. Clevis can encrypt plain-text files but you have to use the cryptsetup tool for encrypting block devices. See the Encrypting block devices using LUKS for more information.

When the client is ready to access its data, it loads the metadata produced in the provisioning step and it responds to recover the encryption key. This process is the recovery step.

In NBDE, Clevis binds a LUKS volume using a pin so that it can be automatically unlocked. After successful completion of the binding process, the disk can be unlocked using the provided Dracut unlocker.

Use this procedure to deploy and start using the Clevis pluggable framework on your system.

You can use a Tang server to automatically unlock LUKS-encrypted volumes on Clevis-enabled clients. In the minimalistic scenario, you deploy a Tang server on port 80 by installing the tang package and entering the systemctl enable tangd.socket --now command. The following example procedure demonstrates the deployment of a Tang server running on a custom port as a confined service in SELinux enforcing mode.

Use the following steps to rotate your Tang server keys and update existing bindings on clients. The precise interval at which you should rotate them depends on your application, key sizes, and institutional policy.

Alternatively, you can rotate Tang keys by using the nbde_server RHEL system role. See Using the nbde_server system role for setting up multiple Tang servers for more information.

You can configure automated unlocking of a LUKS-encrypted storage device using a key provided by a Tang server.

The Clevis framework can encrypt plain-text files and decrypt both ciphertexts in the JSON Web Encryption (JWE) format and LUKS-encrypted block devices. Clevis clients can use either Tang network servers or Trusted Platform Module 2.0 (TPM 2.0) chips for cryptographic operations.

The following commands demonstrate the basic functionality provided by Clevis on examples containing plain-text files. You can also use them for troubleshooting your NBDE or Clevis+TPM deployments.

The pin also supports sealing data to a Platform Configuration Registers (PCR) state. That way, the data can only be unsealed if the PCR hashes values match the policy used when sealing.

For example, to seal the data to the PCR with index 0 and 7 for the SHA-256 bank:

$ clevis encrypt tpm2 '{"pcr_bank":"sha256","pcr_ids":"0,7"}' < input-plain.txt > secret.jwe

Use the following steps to configure unlocking of LUKS-encrypted volumes with NBDE.

# dracut -fv --regenerate-all --kernel-cmdline "ip=192.0.2.10::192.0.2.1:255.255.255.0::ens3:none"

# cat /etc/dracut.conf.d/static_ip.conf
kernel_cmdline="ip=192.0.2.10::192.0.2.1:255.255.255.0::ens3:none"

# dracut -fv --regenerate-all

Use the following steps to configure unlocking of LUKS-encrypted volumes by using a Trusted Platform Module 2.0 (TPM 2.0) policy.

Use the following procedure for manual removing the metadata created by the clevis luks bind command and also for wiping a key slot that contains passphrase added by Clevis.

# clevis luks unbind -d /dev/sda2 -s 1

Follow the steps in this procedure to configure an automated installation process that uses Clevis for the enrollment of LUKS-encrypted volumes.

You can use an analogous procedure when using a TPM 2.0 policy instead of a Tang server.

Use this procedure to set up an automated unlocking process of a LUKS-encrypted USB storage device.

You can use an analogous procedure when using a TPM 2.0 policy instead of a Tang server.

Tang provides two methods for building a high-availability deployment:

# clevis luks bind -d /dev/sda1 sss '{"t":1,"pins":{"tang":[{"url":"http://tang1.srv"},{"url":"http://tang2.srv"}]}}'

{
    "t":1,
    "pins":{
        "tang":[
            {
                "url":"http://tang1.srv"
            },
            {
                "url":"http://tang2.srv"
            }
        ]
    }
}

# clevis luks bind -d /dev/sda1 sss '{"t":2,"pins":{"tang":[{"url":"http://tang1.srv"}], "tpm2": {"pcr_ids":"0,7"}}}'

{
    "t":2,
    "pins":{
        "tang":[
            {
                "url":"http://tang1.srv"
            }
        ],
        "tpm2":{
            "pcr_ids":"0,7"
        }
    }
}

The clevis luks bind command does not change the LUKS master key. This implies that if you create a LUKS-encrypted image for use in a virtual machine or cloud environment, all the instances that run this image share a master key. This is extremely insecure and should be avoided at all times.

This is not a limitation of Clevis but a design principle of LUKS. If your scenario requires having encrypted root volumes in a cloud, perform the installation process (usually using Kickstart) for each instance of Red Hat Enterprise Linux in the cloud as well. The images cannot be shared without also sharing a LUKS master key.

To deploy automated unlocking in a virtualized environment, use systems such as lorax or virt-install together with a Kickstart file (see Configuring automated enrollment of LUKS-encrypted volumes using Kickstart) or another automated provisioning tool to ensure that each encrypted VM has a unique master key.

Deploying automatically-enrollable encrypted images in a cloud environment can provide a unique set of challenges. Like other virtualization environments, it is recommended to reduce the number of instances started from a single image to avoid sharing the LUKS master key.

Therefore, the best practice is to create customized images that are not shared in any public repository and that provide a base for the deployment of a limited amount of instances. The exact number of instances to create should be defined by deployment’s security policies and based on the risk tolerance associated with the LUKS master key attack vector.

To build LUKS-enabled automated deployments, systems such as Lorax or virt-install together with a Kickstart file should be used to ensure master key uniqueness during the image building process.

Cloud environments enable two Tang server deployment options which we consider here. First, the Tang server can be deployed within the cloud environment itself. Second, the Tang server can be deployed outside of the cloud on independent infrastructure with a VPN link between the two infrastructures.

Deploying Tang natively in the cloud does allow for easy deployment. However, given that it shares infrastructure with the data persistence layer of ciphertext of other systems, it may be possible for both the Tang server’s private key and the Clevis metadata to be stored on the same physical disk. Access to this physical disk permits a full compromise of the ciphertext data.

The tang container image provides Tang-server decryption capabilities for Clevis clients that run either in OpenShift Container Platform (OCP) clusters or in separate virtual machines.

RHEL System Roles is a collection of Ansible roles and modules that provide a consistent configuration interface to remotely manage multiple RHEL systems.

RHEL 8.3 introduced Ansible roles for automated deployments of Policy-Based Decryption (PBD) solutions using Clevis and Tang. The rhel-system-roles package contains these system roles, related examples, and also the reference documentation.

The nbde_client System Role enables you to deploy multiple Clevis clients in an automated way. Note that the nbde_client role supports only Tang bindings, and you cannot use it for TPM2 bindings at the moment.

The nbde_client role requires volumes that are already encrypted using LUKS. This role supports to bind a LUKS-encrypted volume to one or more Network-Bound (NBDE) servers - Tang servers. You can either preserve the existing volume encryption with a passphrase or remove it. After removing the passphrase, you can unlock the volume only using NBDE. This is useful when a volume is initially encrypted using a temporary key or password that you should remove after you provision the system.

If you provide both a passphrase and a key file, the role uses what you have provided first. If it does not find any of these valid, it attempts to retrieve a passphrase from an existing binding.

PBD defines a binding as a mapping of a device to a slot. This means that you can have multiple bindings for the same device. The default slot is slot 1.

The nbde_client role provides also the state variable. Use the present value for either creating a new binding or updating an existing one. Contrary to a clevis luks bind command, you can use state: present also for overwriting an existing binding in its device slot. The absent value removes a specified binding.

Using the nbde_client System Role, you can deploy and manage a Tang server as part of an automated disk encryption solution. This role supports the following features:

Follow the steps to prepare and apply an Ansible playbook containing your Tang server settings.

# grubby --update-kernel=ALL --args="rd.neednet=1"

Follow the steps to prepare and apply an Ansible playbook containing your Clevis client settings.

# grubby --update-kernel=ALL --args="rd.neednet=1"

The Linux Audit system provides a way to track security-relevant information about your system. Based on pre-configured rules, Audit generates log entries to record as much information about the events that are happening on your system as possible. This information is crucial for mission-critical environments to determine the violator of the security policy and the actions they performed.

The following list summarizes some of the information that Audit is capable of recording in its log files:

The use of the Audit system is also a requirement for a number of security-related certifications. Audit is designed to meet or exceed the requirements of the following certifications or compliance guides:

Audit has also been:

The Audit system consists of two main parts: the user-space applications and utilities, and the kernel-side system call processing. The kernel component receives system calls from user-space applications and filters them through one of the following filters: user, task, fstype, or exit.

After a system call passes the exclude filter, it is sent through one of the aforementioned filters, which, based on the Audit rule configuration, sends it to the Audit daemon for further processing.

The user-space Audit daemon collects the information from the kernel and creates entries in a log file. Other Audit user-space utilities interact with the Audit daemon, the kernel Audit component, or the Audit log files:

In RHEL 8, the Audit dispatcher daemon (audisp) functionality is integrated in the Audit daemon (auditd). Configuration files of plugins for the interaction of real-time analytical programs with Audit events are located in the /etc/audit/plugins.d/ directory by default.

The default auditd configuration should be suitable for most environments. However, if your environment must meet strict security policies, you can change the following settings for the Audit daemon configuration in the /etc/audit/auditd.conf file:

The remaining configuration options should be set according to your local security policy.

After auditd is configured, start the service to collect Audit information and store it in the log files. Use the following command as the root user to start auditd:

# service auditd start

To configure auditd to start at boot time:

# systemctl enable auditd

You can temporarily disable auditd with the # auditctl -e 0 command and re-enable it with # auditctl -e 1.

You can perform other actions on auditd by using the service auditd <action> command, where <action> can be one of the following:

By default, the Audit system stores log entries in the /var/log/audit/audit.log file; if log rotation is enabled, rotated audit.log files are stored in the same directory.

Add the following Audit rule to log every attempt to read or modify the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file:

# auditctl -w /etc/ssh/sshd_config -p warx -k sshd_config

If the auditd daemon is running, for example, using the following command creates a new event in the Audit log file:

$ cat /etc/ssh/sshd_config

This event in the audit.log file looks as follows:

type=SYSCALL msg=audit(1364481363.243:24287): arch=c000003e syscall=2 success=no exit=-13 a0=7fffd19c5592 a1=0 a2=7fffd19c4b50 a3=a items=1 ppid=2686 pid=3538 auid=1000 uid=1000 gid=1000 euid=1000 suid=1000 fsuid=1000 egid=1000 sgid=1000 fsgid=1000 tty=pts0 ses=1 comm="cat" exe="/bin/cat" subj=unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 key="sshd_config"
type=CWD msg=audit(1364481363.243:24287):  cwd="/home/shadowman"
type=PATH msg=audit(1364481363.243:24287): item=0 name="/etc/ssh/sshd_config" inode=409248 dev=fd:00 mode=0100600 ouid=0 ogid=0 rdev=00:00 obj=system_u:object_r:etc_t:s0  nametype=NORMAL cap_fp=none cap_fi=none cap_fe=0 cap_fver=0
type=PROCTITLE msg=audit(1364481363.243:24287) : proctitle=636174002F6574632F7373682F737368645F636F6E666967

The above event consists of four records, which share the same time stamp and serial number. Records always start with the type= keyword. Each record consists of several name=value pairs separated by a white space or a comma. A detailed analysis of the above event follows:

The Audit system operates on a set of rules that define what is captured in the log files. Audit rules can be set either on the command line using the auditctl utility or in the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory.

The auditctl command enables you to control the basic functionality of the Audit system and to define rules that decide which Audit events are logged.

# auditctl -a always,exit -F exe=/bin/id -F arch=b64 -S execve -k execution_bin_id

To define Audit rules that are persistent across reboots, you must either directly include them in the /etc/audit/rules.d/audit.rules file or use the augenrules program that reads rules located in the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory.

Note that the /etc/audit/audit.rules file is generated whenever the auditd service starts. Files in /etc/audit/rules.d/ use the same auditctl command-line syntax to specify the rules. Empty lines and text following a hash sign (#) are ignored.

Furthermore, you can use the auditctl command to read rules from a specified file using the -R option, for example:

# auditctl -R /usr/share/audit/sample-rules/30-stig.rules

In the /usr/share/audit/sample-rules directory, the audit package provides a set of pre-configured rules files according to various certification standards:

To use these configuration files, copy them to the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory and use the augenrules --load command, for example:

# cd /usr/share/audit/sample-rules/
# cp 10-base-config.rules 30-stig.rules 31-privileged.rules 99-finalize.rules /etc/audit/rules.d/
# augenrules --load

You can order Audit rules using a numbering scheme. See the /usr/share/audit/sample-rules/README-rules file for more information.

The augenrules script reads rules located in the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory and compiles them into an audit.rules file. This script processes all files that end with .rules in a specific order based on their natural sort order. The files in this directory are organized into groups with the following meanings:

The rules are not meant to be used all at once. They are pieces of a policy that should be thought out and individual files copied to /etc/audit/rules.d/. For example, to set a system up in the STIG configuration, copy rules 10-base-config, 30-stig, 31-privileged, and 99-finalize.

Once you have the rules in the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory, load them by running the augenrules script with the --load directive:

# augenrules --load
/sbin/augenrules: No change
No rules
enabled 1
failure 1
pid 742
rate_limit 0
...

Use the following steps to disable the augenrules utility. This switches Audit to use rules defined in the /etc/audit/audit.rules file.

In RHEL 8.6 and later versions, you can use the pre-configured rule 44-installers.rules to configure Audit to monitor the following utilities that install software:

By default, rpm already provides audit SOFTWARE_UPDATE events when it installs or updates a package. You can list them by entering ausearch -m SOFTWARE_UPDATE on the command line.

In RHEL 8.5 and earlier versions, you can manually add rules to monitor utilities that install software into a .rules file within the /etc/audit/rules.d/ directory.