Securing networks

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8

Configuring secured networks and network communication

Red Hat Customer Content Services

Abstract

This title assists administrators with securing networks, connected machines, and network communication against various attacks.

Providing feedback on Red Hat documentation

We appreciate your input on our documentation. Please let us know how we could make it better. To do so:

For simple comments on specific passages, make sure you are viewing the documentation in the Multi-page HTML format. Highlight the part of text that you want to comment on. Then, click the Add Feedback pop-up that appears below the highlighted text, and follow the displayed instructions.
For submitting more complex feedback, create a Bugzilla ticket:
1. Go to the Bugzilla website.
2. As the Component, use Documentation.
3. Fill in the Description field with your suggestion for improvement. Include a link to the relevant part(s) of documentation.
4. Click Submit Bug.

Chapter 1. Using secure communications between two systems with OpenSSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol which facilitates secure communications between two systems using a client-server architecture and allows users to log in to server host systems remotely. Unlike other remote communication protocols, such as FTP or Telnet, SSH encrypts the login session, rendering the connection difficult for intruders to collect unencrypted passwords.

The ssh program is designed to replace older, less secure terminal applications used to log in to remote hosts, such as telnet or rsh. A related program called scp replaces older programs designed to copy files between hosts, such as rcp. Because these older applications do not encrypt passwords transmitted between the client and the server, avoid them whenever possible. Using secure methods to log in to remote systems decreases the risks for both the client system and the remote host.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux includes the general OpenSSH package, openssh, as well as the OpenSSH server, openssh-server, and client, openssh-clients, packages. Note, the OpenSSH packages require the OpenSSL package openssl-libs, which installs several important cryptographic libraries, enabling OpenSSH to provide encrypted communications.

1.1. The `SSH` protocol

1.1.1. Reasons for using SSH

Potential intruders have a variety of tools at their disposal enabling them to disrupt, intercept, and re-route network traffic in an effort to gain access to a system. In general terms, these threats can be categorized as follows:

Interception of communication between two systems

The attacker can be somewhere on the network between the communicating parties, copying any information passed between them. He may intercept and keep the information, or alter the information and send it on to the intended recipient.

This attack is usually performed using a packet sniffer, a rather common network utility that captures each packet flowing through the network, and analyzes its content.

Impersonation of a particular host

Attacker’s system is configured to pose as the intended recipient of a transmission. If this strategy works, the user’s system remains unaware that it is communicating with the wrong host.

This attack can be performed using a technique known as DNS poisoning, or via so-called IP spoofing. In the first case, the intruder uses a cracked DNS server to point client systems to a maliciously duplicated host. In the second case, the intruder sends falsified network packets that appear to be from a trusted host.

Both techniques intercept potentially sensitive information and, if the interception is made for hostile reasons, the results can be disastrous. If SSH is used for remote shell login and file copying, these security threats can be greatly diminished. This is because the SSH client and server use digital signatures to verify their identity. Additionally, all communication between the client and server systems is encrypted. Attempts to spoof the identity of either side of a communication does not work, since each packet is encrypted using a key known only by the local and remote systems.

1.1.2. Main features

The SSH protocol provides the following safeguards:

No one can pose as the intended server: After an initial connection, the client can verify that it is connecting to the same server it had connected to previously.
No one can capture the authentication information: The client transmits its authentication information to the server using strong, 128-bit encryption.
No one can intercept the communication: All data sent and received during a session is transferred using 128-bit encryption, making intercepted transmissions extremely difficult to decrypt and read.

Additionally, it also offers the following options:

It provides secure means to use graphical applications over a network: Using a technique called X11 forwarding, the client can forward X11 (X Window System) applications from the server.
It provides a way to secure otherwise insecure protocols: The SSH protocol encrypts everything it sends and receives. Using a technique called port forwarding, an SSH server can become a conduit to securing otherwise insecure protocols, like POP, and increasing overall system and data security.
It can be used to create a secure channel: The OpenSSH server and client can be configured to create a tunnel similar to a virtual private network for traffic between server and client machines.
It supports the Kerberos authentication: OpenSSH servers and clients can be configured to authenticate using the GSSAPI (Generic Security Services Application Program Interface) implementation of the Kerberos network authentication protocol.

1.1.3. Protocol versions

Two varieties of SSH currently exist: version 1, and newer version 2. The OpenSSH suite under Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8; uses SSH version 2, which has an enhanced key exchange algorithm not vulnerable to the known exploit in version 1. In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, the OpenSSH suite does not support version 1 connections.

1.1.4. Event sequence of an `SSH` connection

The following series of events help protect the integrity of SSH communication between two hosts.

A cryptographic handshake is made so that the client can verify that it is communicating with the correct server.
The transport layer of the connection between the client and remote host is encrypted using a symmetric cipher.
The client authenticates itself to the server.
The client interacts with the remote host over the encrypted connection.

1.1.4.1. Transport layer

The primary role of the transport layer is to facilitate safe and secure communication between the two hosts at the time of authentication and during subsequent communication. The transport layer accomplishes this by handling the encryption and decryption of data, and by providing integrity protection of data packets as they are sent and received. The transport layer also provides compression, speeding the transfer of information.

Once an SSH client contacts a server, key information is exchanged so that the two systems can correctly construct the transport layer. The following steps occur during this exchange:

Keys are exchanged
The public key encryption algorithm is determined
The symmetric encryption algorithm is determined
The message authentication algorithm is determined
The hash algorithm is determined

During the key exchange, the server identifies itself to the client with a unique host key. If the client has never communicated with this particular server before, the server’s host key is unknown to the client and it does not connect. OpenSSH gets around this problem by accepting the server’s host key. This is done after the user is notified and has both accepted and verified the new host key. In subsequent connections, the server’s host key is checked against the saved version on the client, providing confidence that the client is indeed communicating with the intended server. If, in the future, the host key no longer matches, the user must remove the client’s saved version before a connection can occur.

Warning

It is possible for an attacker to masquerade as an SSH server during the initial contact since the local system does not know the difference between the intended server and a false one set up by an attacker. To help prevent this, verify the integrity of a new SSH server by contacting the server administrator before connecting for the first time or in the event of a host key mismatch.

SSH is designed to work with almost any kind of public key algorithm or encoding format. After an initial key exchange creates a hash value used for exchanges and a shared secret value, the two systems immediately begin calculating new keys and algorithms to protect authentication and future data sent over the connection.

After a certain amount of data has been transmitted using a given key and algorithm (the exact amount depends on the SSH implementation), another key exchange occurs, generating another set of hash values and a new shared secret value. Even if an attacker is able to determine the hash and shared secret value, this information is only useful for a limited period of time.

1.1.4.2. Authentication

Once the transport layer has constructed a secure tunnel to pass information between the two systems, the server tells the client the different authentication methods supported, such as using a private key-encoded signature or typing a password. The client then tries to authenticate itself to the server using one of these supported methods.

SSH servers and clients can be configured to allow different types of authentication, which gives each side the optimal amount of control. The server can decide which encryption methods it supports based on its security model, and the client can choose the order of authentication methods to attempt from the available options.

1.1.4.3. Channels

After a successful authentication over the SSH transport layer, multiple channels are opened using a technique called multiplexing^[1]. Each of these channels handles communication for different terminal sessions and for forwarded X11 sessions.

Both clients and servers can create a new channel. Each channel is then assigned a different number on each end of the connection. When the client attempts to open a new channel, the clients sends the channel number along with the request. This information is stored by the server and is used to direct communication to that channel. This is done so that different types of sessions do not affect one another and so that when a given session ends, its channel can be closed without disrupting the primary SSH connection.

Channels also support flow-control, which allows them to send and receive data in an orderly fashion. In this way, data is not sent over the channel until the client receives a message that the channel is open.

The client and server negotiate the characteristics of each channel automatically, depending on the type of service the client requests and the way the user is connected to the network. This allows great flexibility in handling different types of remote connections without having to change the basic infrastructure of the protocol.

1.2. Setting up `OpenSSH` using configuration files

The OpenSSH suite uses two different sets of configuration files: those for client programs (that is, ssh, scp, and sftp), and those for the server (the sshd daemon).

System-wide SSH configuration information is stored in the /etc/ssh/ directory. User-specific SSH configuration information is stored in ~/.ssh/ within the user’s home directory.

Table 1.1. System-wide configuration files

File	Description
`/etc/ssh/moduli`	Contains Diffie-Hellman groups used for the Diffie-Hellman key exchange which is critical for constructing a secure transport layer. When keys are exchanged at the beginning of an SSH session, a shared, secret value is created which cannot be determined by either party alone. This value is then used to provide host authentication.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_config`	The default SSH client configuration file. Note that it is overridden by `~/.ssh/config` if it exists.
`/etc/ssh/sshd_config`	The configuration file for the `sshd` daemon.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key`	The ECDSA private key used by the `sshd` daemon.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key.pub`	The ECDSA public key used by the `sshd` daemon.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key`	The Ed25519 private key used by the `sshd` daemon for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_ed25519_key.pub`	The Ed25519 public key used by the `sshd` daemon for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key`	The RSA private key used by the `sshd` daemon for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub`	The RSA public key used by the `sshd` daemon for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`/etc/pam.d/sshd`	The PAM configuration file for the `sshd` daemon.
`/etc/sysconfig/sshd`	Configuration file for the `sshd` service.

Table 1.2. User-specific configuration files

File	Description
`~/.ssh/authorized_keys`	Holds a list of authorized public keys for servers. When the client connects to a server, the server authenticates the client by checking its signed public key stored within this file.
`~/.ssh/id_ecdsa`	Contains the ECDSA private key of the user.
`~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub`	The ECDSA public key of the user.
`~/.ssh/id_ed25519`	The Ed25519 private key used by `ssh` for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`~/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub`	The Ed25519 public key used by `ssh` for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`~/.ssh/id_rsa`	The RSA private key used by `ssh` for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub`	The RSA public key used by `ssh` for version 2 of the SSH protocol.
`~/.ssh/known_hosts`	Contains host keys of SSH servers accessed by the user. This file is very important for ensuring that the SSH client is connecting to the correct SSH server.

Warning

If setting up an SSH server, do not turn off the Privilege Separation feature by using the UsePrivilegeSeparation no directive in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file. Turning off Privilege Separation disables many security features and exposes the server to potential security vulnerabilities and targeted attacks. For more information about UsePrivilegeSeparation, see the sshd_config(5) manual page or the What is the significance of UsePrivilegeSeparation directive in /etc/ssh/sshd_config file and how to test it Red Hat Knowledgebase article.

For information about various directives that can be used in the SSH configuration files, see the ssh_config(5) and sshd_config(5) manual pages.

1.3. Starting an OpenSSH server

To run an OpenSSH server, install the openssh-server package. To start the sshd daemon in the current session:

# systemctl start sshd.service

To stop the running sshd daemon in the current session:

# systemctl stop sshd.service

To start the daemon automatically at boot time:

# systemctl enable sshd.service
Created symlink from /etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/sshd.service to /usr/lib/systemd/system/sshd.service.

The sshd daemon depends on the network.target target unit, which is sufficient for static configured network interfaces and for default ListenAddress 0.0.0.0 options. To specify different addresses in the ListenAddress directive and to use a slower dynamic network configuration, add dependency on the network-online.target target unit to the sshd.service unit file. To achieve this, create the /etc/systemd/system/sshd.service.d/local.conf file with the following options:

  [Unit]
  Wants=network-online.target
  After=network-online.target

After this, reload the systemd manager configuration using the following command:

# systemctl daemon-reload

Note that if you reinstall the system, a new set of identification keys will be created. As a result, clients who had connected to the system with any of the OpenSSH tools before the reinstall will see the following message:

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@: REMOTE HOST IDENTIFICATION HAS CHANGED!     @
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
IT IS POSSIBLE THAT SOMEONE IS DOING SOMETHING NASTY!
Someone could be eavesdropping on you right now (man-in-the-middle attack)!
It is also possible that the RSA host key has just been changed.

To prevent this, you can backup the relevant files from the /etc/ssh/ directory. See Table 1.1, “System-wide configuration files” for a complete list, and restore the files whenever you reinstall the system.

1.3.1. Configuring the OpenSSH server keys generation

OpenSSH creates RSA, ECDSA, and ED25519 server keys automatically if they are missing. Prior to RHEL 8, administrators have configured the automatic host keys creation in the /etc/sysconfig/sshd file when needed. To configure the host key creation in RHEL 8, use the sshd-keygen@.service instantiated service.

For example, the following commands disable the automatic RSA key creation and enable the automatic DSA key creation on the OpenSSH server:

# systemctl mask sshd-keygen@rsa.service
# systemctl enable sshd-keygen@dsa.service

Warning

Note that DSA keys are insecure due to only small key size supported and thus deprecated.

1.4. Requiring SSH for remote connections

To make SSH truly effective, using insecure connection protocols should be prohibited. Otherwise, a user’s password may be protected using SSH for one session, only to be captured later while logging in using Telnet. Some services to disable include telnet, rsh, rlogin, and vsftpd.

1.5. Using key-based authentication

To improve the system security even further, generate SSH key pairs and then enforce key-based authentication by disabling password authentication. To do so, open the /etc/ssh/sshd_config configuration file in a text editor such as vi or nano, and change the PasswordAuthentication option as follows:

PasswordAuthentication no

On a system other than a new default installation, check that PubkeyAuthentication no has not been set. If connected remotely, not using console or out-of-band access, testing the key-based login process before disabling password authentication is advised.

To be able to use ssh, scp, or sftp to connect to the server from a client machine, generate an authorization key pair by following the steps below. Note that keys must be generated for each user separately.

To use key-based authentication with NFS-mounted home directories, enable the use_nfs_home_dirs SELinux boolean first:

# setsebool -P use_nfs_home_dirs 1

Important

If you complete the steps as root, only root is able to use the keys.

Note

If you reinstall your system and want to keep previously generated key pairs, backup the ~/.ssh/ directory. After reinstalling, copy it back to your home directory. This process can be done for all users on your system, including root.

1.5.1. Generating key pairs

To generate an RSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:

Generate an RSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:

$ ssh-keygen -t rsa
Generating public/private rsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa):

Press Enter to confirm the default location, ~/.ssh/id_rsa, for the newly created key.

Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.

After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:

Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa.
Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:UNIgIT4wfhdQH/K7yqmjsbZnnyGDKiDviv492U5z78Y USER@penguin.example.com
The key's randomart image is:
+---[RSA 2048]----+
|o ..==o+.        |
|.+ . .=oo        |
| .o. ..o         |
|  ...  ..        |
|       .S        |
|o .     .        |
|o+ o .o+ ..      |
|+.++=o*.o .E     |
|BBBo+Bo.  oo     |
+----[SHA256]-----+

Note

To get an MD5 key fingerprint, which was the default fingerprint in previous versions, use the ssh-keygen command with the -E md5 option.

By default, the permissions of the ~/.ssh/ directory are set to rwx------ or 700 expressed in octal notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be confirmed with the following command:
```
$ ls -ld ~/.ssh
drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
```
To copy the public key to a remote machine, issue a command in the following format:
```
 ssh-copy-id user@hostname
```
This copies the most recently modified ~/.ssh/id*.pub public key if it is not yet installed. Alternatively, specify the public key’s file name as follows:
```
ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub user@hostname
```
This copies the content of ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub into the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys file on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its end.

To generate an ECDSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:

Generate an ECDSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:

$ ssh-keygen -t ecdsa
Generating public/private ecdsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa):

Press Enter to confirm the default location, ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa, for the newly created key.

Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.

After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:

Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa.
Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:8BhZageKrLXM99z5f/AM9aPo/KAUd8ZZFPcPFWqK6+M USER@penguin.example.com
The key's randomart image is:
+---[ECDSA 256]---+
|      . .      +=|
| . . . =      o.o|
|  + . * .    o...|
| = . . *  . + +..|
|. + . . So o * ..|
|   . o . .+ =  ..|
|      o oo ..=. .|
|        ooo...+  |
|        .E++oo   |
+----[SHA256]-----+

By default, the permissions of the ~/.ssh/ directory are set to rwx------ or 700 expressed in octal notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be confirmed with the following command:
```
$ ls -ld ~/.ssh
              $ ls -ld ~/.ssh/
drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
```
To copy the public key to a remote machine:
```
ssh-copy-id USER@hostname
```
This copies the most recently modified ~/.ssh/id*.pub public key if it is not yet installed. Alternatively, specify the public key’s file name as follows:
```
ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub USER@hostname
```
This copies the content of ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub into the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its end.

To generate an Ed25519 key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, use the -t ed25519 parameter:

$ ssh-keygen -t ed25519
Generating public/private ed25519 key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519):
Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase):
Enter same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519.
Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:QAraxfuP5se1CnGTcn7FKLJ++G6dtkzOaw/a46KU5CQ USER@penguin.example.com
The key's randomart image is:
+--[ED25519 256]--+
|  ... .          |
| o o.o           |
|. . ...          |
|    .  . . o     |
|    E.* S . o    |
|     =.X o..     |
|      *=.o+o     |
|     o+.BOB.     |
|     o+B=*O=.    |
+----[SHA256]-----+

The generated Ed25519 keys are handled in the same way as RSA or ECDSA keys.

Important

The private key is for your personal use only, and it is important that you never give it to anyone.

1.6. Related information

For more information on how to configure or connect to an OpenSSH server on Red Hat Enterprise Linux, see the resources listed below.

Installed Documentation

sshd(8) — The manual page for the sshd daemon documents available command-line options and provides a complete list of supported configuration files and directories.
ssh(1) — The manual page for the ssh client application provides a complete list of available command-line options and supported configuration files and directories.
scp(1) — The manual page for the scp utility provides a more detailed description of this utility and its usage.
sftp(1) — The manual page for the sftp utility.
ssh-keygen(1) — The manual page for the ssh-keygen utility documents in detail how to use it to generate, manage, and convert authentication keys used by ssh.
ssh_config(5) — The manual page named ssh_config documents available SSH client configuration options.
sshd_config(5) — The manual page named sshd_config provides a full description of available SSH daemon configuration options.

Online Documentation

OpenSSH Home Page — The OpenSSH home page containing further documentation, frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, bug reports, and other useful resources.
OpenSSL Home Page — The OpenSSL home page containing further documentation, frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, and other useful resources.

^[1] A multiplexed connection consists of several signals being sent over a shared, common medium. With SSH, different channels are sent over a common secure connection.

Chapter 2. Planning and implementing TLS

TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a cryptographic protocol used to secure network communications. When hardening system security settings by configuring preferred key-exchange protocols, authentication methods, and encryption algorithms, it is necessary to bear in mind that the broader the range of supported clients, the lower the resulting security. Conversely, strict security settings lead to limited compatibility with clients, which can result in some users being locked out of the system. Be sure to target the strictest available configuration and only relax it when it is required for compatibility reasons.

2.1. SSL and TLS protocols

The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol was originally developed by Netscape Corporation to provide a mechanism for secure communication over the Internet. Subsequently, the protocol was adopted by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and renamed to Transport Layer Security (TLS).

The TLS protocol sits between an application protocol layer and a reliable transport layer, such as TCP/IP. It is independent of the application protocol and can thus be layered underneath many different protocols, for example: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and so on.

Protocol version	Usage recommendation
SSL v2	Do not use. Has serious security vulnerabilities. Removed from the core crypto libraries since RHEL 7.
SSL v3	Do not use. Has serious security vulnerabilities. Removed from the core crypto libraries since RHEL 8.
TLS 1.0	Not recommended to use. Has known issues that cannot be mitigated in a way that guarantees interoperability, and does not support modern cipher suites. Enabled only in the `LEGACY` system-wide cryptographic policy profile.
TLS 1.1	Use for interoperability purposes where needed. Does not support modern cipher suites. Enabled only in the `LEGACY` policy.
TLS 1.2	Supports the modern AEAD cipher suites. This version is enabled in all system-wide crypto policies, but optional parts of this protocol contain vulnerabilities and TLS 1.2 also allows outdated algorithms.
TLS 1.3	Recommended version. TLS 1.3 removes known problematic options, provides additional privacy by encrypting more of the negotiation handshake and can be faster thanks usage of more efficient modern cryptographic algorithms. TLS 1.3 is also enabled in all system-wide crypto policies.

Additional resources

IETF: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.3

2.2. Security considerations for TLS in RHEL 8

In RHEL 8, cryptography-related considerations are significantly simplified thanks to the system-wide crypto policies. The DEFAULT crypto policy allows only TLS 1.2 and 1.3. To allow your system to negotiate connections using the earlier versions of TLS, you need to either opt out from following crypto policies in an application or switch to the LEGACY policy with the update-crypto-policies command. See Using system-wide cryptographic policies for more information.

The default settings provided by libraries included in RHEL 8 are secure enough for most deployments. The TLS implementations use secure algorithms where possible while not preventing connections from or to legacy clients or servers. Apply hardened settings in environments with strict security requirements where legacy clients or servers that do not support secure algorithms or protocols are not expected or allowed to connect.

The most straightforward way to harden your TLS configuration is switching the system-wide cryptographic policy level to FUTURE using the update-crypto-policies --set FUTURE command.

If you decide to not follow RHEL system-wide crypto policies, use the following recommendations for preferred protocols, cipher suites, and key lengths on your custom configuration:

2.2.1. Protocols

The latest version of TLS provides the best security mechanism. Unless you have a compelling reason to include support for older versions of TLS, allow your systems to negotiate connections using at least TLS version 1.2. Note that despite that RHEL 8 supports TLS version 1.3, not all features of this protocol are fully supported by RHEL 8 component. For example, the 0-RTT (Zero Round Trip Time) feature, which reduces connection latency, is not yet fully supported by Apache or Nginx web servers.

2.2.2. Cipher suites

Modern, more secure cipher suites should be preferred to old, insecure ones. Always disable the use of eNULL and aNULL cipher suites, which do not offer any encryption or authentication at all. If at all possible, ciphers suites based on RC4 or HMAC-MD5, which have serious shortcomings, should also be disabled. The same applies to the so-called export cipher suites, which have been intentionally made weaker, and thus are easy to break.

While not immediately insecure, cipher suites that offer less than 128 bits of security should not be considered for their short useful life. Algorithms that use 128 bits of security or more can be expected to be unbreakable for at least several years, and are thus strongly recommended. Note that while 3DES ciphers advertise the use of 168 bits, they actually offer 112 bits of security.

Always give preference to cipher suites that support (perfect) forward secrecy (PFS), which ensures the confidentiality of encrypted data even in case the server key is compromised. This rules out the fast RSA key exchange, but allows for the use of ECDHE and DHE. Of the two, ECDHE is the faster and therefore the preferred choice.

You should also give preference to AEAD ciphers, such as AES-GCM, before CBC-mode ciphers as they are not vulnerable to padding oracle attacks. Additionally, in many cases, AES-GCM is faster than AES in CBC mode, especially when the hardware has cryptographic accelerators for AES.

Note also that when using the ECDHE key exchange with ECDSA certificates, the transaction is even faster than pure RSA key exchange. To provide support for legacy clients, you can install two pairs of certificates and keys on a server: one with ECDSA keys (for new clients) and one with RSA keys (for legacy ones).

2.2.3. Public key length

When using RSA keys, always prefer key lengths of at least 3072 bits signed by at least SHA-256, which is sufficiently large for true 128 bits of security.

Warning

The security of your system is only as strong as the weakest link in the chain. For example, a strong cipher alone does not guarantee good security. The keys and the certificates are just as important, as well as the hash functions and keys used by the Certification Authority (CA) to sign your keys.

Additional resources

System-wide crypto policies in RHEL 8.
update-crypto-policies(8) man page

2.3. Hardening TLS configuration in applications

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, system-wide crypto policies provide a convenient way to ensure that your applications using cryptographic libraries do not allow known insecure protocols, ciphers, or algorithms.

If you want to harden your TLS-related configuration with your customized cryptographic settings, you can use the cryptographic configuration options described in this section, and override the system-wide crypto policies just in the minimum required amount.

Regardless of the configuration you choose to use, always make sure to mandate that your server application enforces server-side cipher order, so that the cipher suite to be used is determined by the order you configure.

2.3.1. Configuring the `Apache HTTP server`

The Apache HTTP Server can use both OpenSSL and NSS libraries for its TLS needs. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 provides the mod_ssl functionality through eponymous packages:

# yum install mod_ssl

The mod_ssl package installs the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file, which can be used to modify the TLS-related settings of the Apache HTTP Server.

Install the httpd-manual package to obtain complete documentation for the Apache HTTP Server, including TLS configuration. The directives available in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file are described in detail in /usr/share/httpd/manual/mod/mod_ssl.html. Examples of various settings are in /usr/share/httpd/manual/ssl/ssl_howto.html.

When modifying the settings in the /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf configuration file, be sure to consider the following three directives at the minimum:

SSLProtocol: Use this directive to specify the version of TLS or SSL you want to allow.
SSLCipherSuite: Use this directive to specify your preferred cipher suite or disable the ones you want to disallow.
SSLHonorCipherOrder: Uncomment and set this directive to on to ensure that the connecting clients adhere to the order of ciphers you specified.

For example, to use only the TLS 1.2 and 1.3 protocol:

SSLProtocol             all -SSLv3 -TLSv1 -TLSv1.1

2.3.2. Configuring the `Nginx` HTTP and proxy server

To enable TLS 1.3 support in Nginx, add the TLSv1.3 value to the ssl_protocols option in the server section of the /etc/nginx/nginx.conf configuration file:

server {
    listen 443 ssl http2;
    listen [::]:443 ssl http2;
    ....
    ssl_protocols TLSv1.2 TLSv1.3;
    ssl_ciphers
    ....
}

2.3.3. Configuring the Dovecot mail server

To configure your installation of the Dovecot mail server to use TLS, modify the /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf configuration file. You can find an explanation of some of the basic configuration directives available in that file in the /usr/share/doc/dovecot/wiki/SSL.DovecotConfiguration.txt file, which is installed along with the standard installation of Dovecot.

When modifying the settings in the /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf configuration file, be sure to consider the following three directives at the minimum:

ssl_protocols: Use this directive to specify the version of TLS or SSL you want to allow or disable.
ssl_cipher_list: Use this directive to specify your preferred cipher suites or disable the ones you want to disallow.
ssl_prefer_server_ciphers: Uncomment and set this directive to yes to ensure that the connecting clients adhere to the order of ciphers you specified.

For example, the following line in /etc/dovecot/conf.d/10-ssl.conf allows only TLS 1.1 and later:

ssl_protocols = !SSLv2 !SSLv3 !TLSv1

Additional resources

For more information about TLS configuration and related topics, see the resources listed below.

config(5) man page describes the format of the /etc/ssl/openssl.conf configuration file.
ciphers(1) man page includes a list of available OpenSSL keywords and cipher strings.
Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
Mozilla SSL Configuration Generator can help to create configuration files for Apache or Nginx with secure settings that disable known vulnerable protocols, ciphers, and hashing algorithms.
SSL Server Test verifies that your configuration meets modern security requirements.

Chapter 3. Configuring a VPN with IPsec

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, a virtual private network (VPN) can be configured using the IPsec protocol, which is supported by the Libreswan application.

3.1. Libreswan as an IPsec VPN implementation

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, a Virtual Private Network (VPN) can be configured using the IPsec protocol, which is supported by the Libreswan application. Libreswan is a continuation of the Openswan application, and many examples from the Openswan documentation are interchangeable with Libreswan.

The IPsec protocol for a VPN is configured using the Internet Key Exchange (IKE) protocol. The terms IPsec and IKE are used interchangeably. An IPsec VPN is also called an IKE VPN, IKEv2 VPN, XAUTH VPN, Cisco VPN or IKE/IPsec VPN. A variant of an IPsec VPN that also uses the Level 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is usually called an L2TP/IPsec VPN, which requires the Optional channel xl2tpd application.

Libreswan is an open-source, user-space IKE implementation. IKE v1 and v2 are implemented as a user-level daemon. The IKE protocol is also encrypted. The IPsec protocol is implemented by the Linux kernel, and Libreswan configures the kernel to add and remove VPN tunnel configurations.

The IKE protocol uses UDP port 500 and 4500. The IPsec protocol consists of two protocols:

Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP), which has protocol number 50.
Authenticated Header (AH), which has protocol number 51.

The AH protocol is not recommended for use. Users of AH are recommended to migrate to ESP with null encryption.

The IPsec protocol provides two modes of operation:

Tunnel Mode (the default)
Transport Mode.

You can configure the kernel with IPsec without IKE. This is called Manual Keying. You can also configure manual keying using the ip xfrm commands, however, this is strongly discouraged for security reasons. Libreswan interfaces with the Linux kernel using netlink. Packet encryption and decryption happen in the Linux kernel.

Libreswan uses the Network Security Services (NSS) cryptographic library. Both Libreswan and NSS are certified for use with the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 140-2.

Important

IKE/IPsec VPNs, implemented by Libreswan and the Linux kernel, is the only VPN technology recommended for use in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8. Do not use any other VPN technology without understanding the risks of doing so.

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8, Libreswan follows system-wide cryptographic policies by default. This ensures that Libreswan uses secure settings for current threat models including IKEv2 as a default protocol. See Using system-wide crypto policies for more information.

Libreswan does not use the terms "source" and "destination" or "server" and "client" because IKE/IPsec are peer to peer protocols. Instead, it uses the terms "left" and "right" to refer to end points (the hosts). This also allows you to use the same configuration on both end points in most cases. However, administrators usually choose to always use "left" for the local host and "right" for the remote host. :// included in configuring-a-vpn-with-ipsec

3.2. Installing Libreswan

This procedure describes the steps for installing and starting the Libreswan IPsec/IKE VPN implementation.

Prerequisites

The AppStream repository is enabled.

Procedure

Install the libreswan packages:
```
# yum install libreswan
```
If you are re-installing Libreswan, remove its old database files:
```
# systemctl stop ipsec
# rm /etc/ipsec.d/*db
```
To initialize the NSS database for Libreswan in FIPS mode, you have to enable password protection for it:
```
certutil -N -d sql:/etc/ipsec.d
```
Start the ipsec service, and enable the service to be started automatically on boot:
```
# systemctl start ipsec
# systemctl enable ipsec
```
Configure the firewall to allow 500 and 4500/UDP ports for the IKE, ESP, and AH protocols by adding the ipsec service:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-service="ipsec"
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

3.3. Creating a host-to-host VPN

To configure Libreswan to create a host-to-host IPsec VPN between two hosts referred to as left and right, enter the following commands on both of the hosts:

Procedure

Generate an RSA key pair on each host:

# ipsec newhostkey --output /etc/ipsec.d/hostkey.secrets

The previous step returned the generated key’s ckaid. Use that ckaid with the following command on left, for example:
```
# ipsec showhostkey --left --ckaid 2d3ea57b61c9419dfd6cf43a1eb6cb306c0e857d
```
The output of the previous command generated the leftrsasigkey= line required for the configuration. Do the same on the second host (right):
```
# ipsec showhostkey --right --ckaid a9e1f6ce9ecd3608c24e8f701318383f41798f03
```

In the /etc/ipsec.d/ directory, create a new my_host-to-host.conf file. Write the RSA host keys from the output of the ipsec showhostkey commands in the previous step to the new file. For example:

conn mytunnel
    leftid=@west
    left=192.1.2.23
    leftrsasigkey=0sAQOrlo+hOafUZDlCQmXFrje/oZm [...] W2n417C/4urYHQkCvuIQ==
    rightid=@east
    right=192.1.2.45
    rightrsasigkey=0sAQO3fwC6nSSGgt64DWiYZzuHbc4 [...] D/v8t5YTQ==
    authby=rsasig

Start ipsec:
```
# ipsec setup start
```
Load the connection:
```
# ipsec auto --add mytunnel
```
Establish the tunnel:
```
# ipsec auto --up mytunnel
```
To automatically start the tunnel when the ipsec service is started, add the following line to the connection definition:
```
auto=start
```

3.4. Configuring a site-to-site VPN

To create a site-to-site IPsec VPN, by joining two networks, an IPsec tunnel between the two hosts, is created. The hosts thus act as the end points, which are configured to permit traffic from one or more subnets to pass through. Therefore you can think of the host as gateways to the remote portion of the network.

The configuration of the site-to-site VPN only differs from the host-to-host VPN in that one or more networks or subnets must be specified in the configuration file.

Prerequisites

A host-to-host VPN is already configured.

Procedure

Copy the file with the configuration of your host-to-host VPN to a new file, for example:
```
# cp /etc/ipsec.d/my_host-to-host.conf /etc/ipsec.d/my_site-to-site.conf
```

Add the subnet configuration to the file created in the previous step, for example:

conn mysubnet
     also=mytunnel
     leftsubnet=192.0.1.0/24
     rightsubnet=192.0.2.0/24
     auto=start

conn mysubnet6
     also=mytunnel
     leftsubnet=2001:db8:0:1::/64
     rightsubnet=2001:db8:0:2::/64
     auto=start

# the following part of the configuration file is the same for both host-to-host and site-to-site connections:

conn mytunnel
    leftid=@west
    left=192.1.2.23
    leftrsasigkey=0sAQOrlo+hOafUZDlCQmXFrje/oZm [...] W2n417C/4urYHQkCvuIQ==
    rightid=@east
    right=192.1.2.45
    rightrsasigkey=0sAQO3fwC6nSSGgt64DWiYZzuHbc4 [...] D/v8t5YTQ==
    authby=rsasig

3.5. Configuring a remote access VPN

Road warriors are traveling users with mobile clients with a dynamically assigned IP address, such as laptops. The mobile clients authenticate using certificates.

The following example shows configuration for IKEv2, and it avoids using the IKEv1 XAUTH protocol.

On the server:

conn roadwarriors
    ikev2=insist
    # Support (roaming) MOBIKE clients (RFC 4555)
    mobike=yes
    fragmentation=yes
    left=1.2.3.4
    # if access to the LAN is given, enable this, otherwise use 0.0.0.0/0
    # leftsubnet=10.10.0.0/16
    leftsubnet=0.0.0.0/0
    leftcert=gw.example.com
    leftid=%fromcert
    leftxauthserver=yes
    leftmodecfgserver=yes
    right=%any
    # trust our own Certificate Agency
    rightca=%same
    # pick an IP address pool to assign to remote users
    # 100.64.0.0/16 prevents RFC1918 clashes when remote users are behind NAT
    rightaddresspool=100.64.13.100-100.64.13.254
    # if you want remote clients to use some local DNS zones and servers
    modecfgdns="1.2.3.4, 5.6.7.8"
    modecfgdomains="internal.company.com, corp"
    rightxauthclient=yes
    rightmodecfgclient=yes
    authby=rsasig
    # optionally, run the client X.509 ID through pam to allow/deny client
    # pam-authorize=yes
    # load connection, don't initiate
    auto=add
    # kill vanished roadwarriors
    dpddelay=1m
    dpdtimeout=5m
    dpdaction=%clear

On the mobile client, the road warrior’s device, use a slight variation of the previous configuration:

conn to-vpn-server
    ikev2=insist
    # pick up our dynamic IP
    left=%defaultroute
    leftsubnet=0.0.0.0/0
    leftcert=myname.example.com
    leftid=%fromcert
    leftmodecfgclient=yes
    # right can also be a DNS hostname
    right=1.2.3.4
    # if access to the remote LAN is required, enable this, otherwise use 0.0.0.0/0
    # rightsubnet=10.10.0.0/16
    rightsubnet=0.0.0.0/0
    fragmentation=yes
    # trust our own Certificate Agency
    rightca=%same
    authby=rsasig
    # allow narrowing to the server’s suggested assigned IP and remote subnet
    narrowing=yes
    # Support (roaming) MOBIKE clients (RFC 4555)
    mobike=yes
    # Initiate connection
    auto=start

3.6. Configuring a mesh VPN

A mesh VPN network, which is also known as an any-to-any VPN, is a network where all nodes communicate using IPsec. The configuration allows for exceptions for nodes that cannot use IPsec. The mesh VPN network can be configured in two ways:

To require IPsec.
To prefer IPsec but allow a fallback to clear-text communication.

Authentication between the nodes can be based on X.509 certificates or on DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC).

The following procedure uses X.509 certificates. These certificates can be generated using any kind of Certificate Authority (CA) management system, such as the Dogtag Certificate System. Dogtag assumes that the certificates for each node are available in the PKCS #12 format (.p12 files), which contain the private key, the node certificate, and the Root CA certificate used to validate other nodes' X.509 certificates.

Each node has an identical configuration with the exception of its X.509 certificate. This allows for adding new nodes without reconfiguring any of the existing nodes in the network. The PKCS #12 files require a "friendly name", for which we use the name "node" so that the configuration files referencing the friendly name can be identical for all nodes.

Prerequisites

Libreswan is installed, and the ipsec service is started on each node.

Procedure

On each node, import PKCS #12 files. This step requires the password used to generate the PKCS #12 files:
```
# ipsec import nodeXXX.p12
```

Create the following three connection definitions for the IPsec required (private), IPsec optional (private-or-clear), and No IPsec (clear) profiles:

# /etc/ipsec.d/mesh.conf
conn clear
	auto=ondemand
	type=passthrough
	authby=never
	left=%defaultroute
	right=%group

conn private
	auto=ondemand
	type=transport
	authby=rsasig
	failureshunt=drop
	negotiationshunt=drop
	# left
	left=%defaultroute
	leftcert=nodeXXXX
	leftid=%fromcert
        leftrsasigkey=%cert
	# right
	rightrsasigkey=%cert
	rightid=%fromcert
	right=%opportunisticgroup

conn private-or-clear
	auto=ondemand
	type=transport
	authby=rsasig
	failureshunt=passthrough
	negotiationshunt=passthrough
	# left
	left=%defaultroute
	leftcert=nodeXXXX
	leftid=%fromcert
        leftrsasigkey=%cert
	# right
	rightrsasigkey=%cert
	rightid=%fromcert
	right=%opportunisticgroup

Add the IP address of the network in the proper category. For example, if all nodes reside in the 10.15.0.0/16 network, and all nodes should mandate IPsec encryption:
```
# echo "10.15.0.0/16" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/private
```
To allow certain nodes, for example, 10.15.34.0/24, to work with and without IPsec, add those nodes to the private-or-clear group using:
```
# echo "10.15.34.0/24" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/private-or-clear
```
To define a host, for example, 10.15.1.2, that is not capable of IPsec into the clear group, use:
```
# echo "10.15.1.2/32" >> /etc/ipsec.d/policies/clear
```
The files in the /etc/ipsec.d/policies directory can be created from a template for each new node, or can be provisioned using Puppet or Ansible.
Note that every node has the same list of exceptions or different traffic flow expectations. Two nodes, therefore, might not be able to communicate because one requires IPsec and the other cannot use IPsec.
Restart the node to add it to the configured mesh:
```
# systemctl restart ipsec
```
Once you finish with the addition of nodes, a ping command is sufficient to open an IPsec tunnel. To see which tunnels a node has opened:
```
# ipsec trafficstatus
```

3.7. Methods of authentication used in Libreswan

You can use the following methods for authentication of end points:

Pre-Shared Keys (PSK) is the simplest authentication method. PSKs should consist of random characters and have a length of at least 20 characters. In FIPS mode, PSKs need to comply to a minimum strength requirement depending on the integrity algorithm used. It is recommended not to use PSKs shorter than 64 random characters.
Raw RSA keys are commonly used for static host-to-host or subnet-to-subnet IPsec configurations. The hosts are manually configured with each other’s public RSA key. This method does not scale well when dozens or more hosts all need to setup IPsec tunnels to each other.
X.509 certificates are commonly used for large-scale deployments where there are many hosts that need to connect to a common IPsec gateway. A central certificate authority (CA) is used to sign RSA certificates for hosts or users. This central CA is responsible for relaying trust, including the revocations of individual hosts or users.
NULL authentication is used to gain mesh encryption without authentication. It protects against passive attacks but does not protect against active attacks. However, since IKEv2 allows asymmetrical authentication methods, NULL authentication can also be used for internet scale opportunistic IPsec, where clients authenticate the server, but servers do not authenticate the client. This model is similar to secure websites using TLS.

Protection against quantum computers

In addition to these authentication methods, you can use the Postquantum Preshared Keys (PPK) method to protect against possible attacks by quantum computers. Individual clients or groups of clients can use their own PPK by specifying a (PPKID) that corresponds to an out-of-band configured PreShared Key.

Using IKEv1 with PreShared Keys provided protection against quantum attackers. The redesign of IKEv2 does not offer this protection natively. Libreswan offers the use of Postquantum Preshared Keys (PPK) to protect IKEv2 connections against quantum attacks.

To enable optional PPK support, add ppk=yes to the connection definition. To require PPK, add ppk=insist. Then, each client can be given a PPK ID with a secret value that is communicated out-of-band (and preferably quantum safe). The PPK’s should be very strong in randomness and not be based on dictionary words. The PPK ID and PPK data itself are stored in ipsec.secrets, for example:

@west @east : PPKS "user1" "thestringismeanttobearandomstr"

The PPKS option refers to static PPKs. An experimental function uses one-time-pad based Dynamic PPKs. Upon each connection, a new part of a one-time pad is used as the PPK. When used, that part of the dynamic PPK inside the file is overwritten with zeroes to prevent re-use. If there is no more one-time-pad material left, the connection fails. See the ipsec.secrets(5) man page for more information.

Warning

The implementation of dynamic PPKs is provided as a Technology Preview, and this functionality should be used with caution.

Chapter 4. Configuring MACsec

The following section provides information on how to configure Media Control Access Security (MACsec), which is an 802.1AE IEEE standard security technology for secure communication in all traffic on Ethernet links.

4.1. Introduction to MACsec

Media Access Control Security (MACsec, IEEE 802.1AE) encrypts and authenticates all traffic in LANs with the GCM-AES-128 algorithm. MACsec can protect not only IP but also Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Neighbor Discovery (ND), or DHCP. While IPsec operates on the network layer (layer 3) and SSL or TLS on the application layer (layer 7), MACsec operates in the data link layer (layer 2). Combine MACsec with security protocols for other networking layers to take advantage of different security features that these standards provide.

4.2. Using MACsec with nmcli tool

This procedure shows how to configure MACsec with nmcli tool.

Prerequisites

The NetworkManager must be running.
You already have a 16-byte hexadecimal CAK ($MKA_CAK) and a 32-byte hexadecimal CKN ($MKA_CKN).

Procedure

~]# nmcli connection add type macsec \
  con-name test-macsec+ ifname macsec0 \
  connection.autoconnect no \
  macsec.parent eth0 macsec.mode psk \
  macsec.mka-cak $MKA_CAK \
  macsec.mka-ckn $MKA_CKN

~]# nmcli connection up test-macsec+

After this step, the macsec0 device is configured and can be used for networking.

4.3. Using MACsec with wpa_supplicant

This procedure shows how to enable MACsec with a switch that performs authentication using a pre-shared Connectivity Association Key/CAK Name (CAK/CKN) pair.

Procedure

Create a CAK/CKN pair. For example, the following command generates a 16-byte key in hexadecimal notation:
```
~]$ dd if=/dev/urandom count=16 bs=1 2> /dev/null | hexdump -e '1/2 "%02x"'
```
Create the wpa_supplicant.conf configuration file and add the following lines to it:
```
ctrl_interface=/var/run/wpa_supplicant
eapol_version=3
ap_scan=0
fast_reauth=1

network={
    key_mgmt=NONE
    eapol_flags=0
    macsec_policy=1

    mka_cak=0011... # 16 bytes hexadecimal
    mka_ckn=2233... # 32 bytes hexadecimal
}
```
Use the values from the previous step to complete the mka_cak and mka_ckn lines in the wpa_supplicant.conf configuration file.
For more information, see the wpa_supplicant.conf(5) man page.
Assuming you are using eth0 to connect to your network, start wpa_supplicant using the following command:
```
~]# wpa_supplicant -i eth0 -Dmacsec_linux -c wpa_supplicant.conf
```

Chapter 5. Using and configuring firewalls

A firewall is a way to protect machines from any unwanted traffic from outside. It enables users to control incoming network traffic on host machines by defining a set of firewall rules. These rules are used to sort the incoming traffic and either block it or allow through.

5.1. Getting started with `firewalld`

5.1.1. firewalld

firewalld is a firewall service daemon that provides a dynamic customizable host-based firewall with a D-Bus interface. Being dynamic, it enables creating, changing, and deleting the rules without the necessity to restart the firewall daemon each time the rules are changed.

firewalld uses the concepts of zones and services, that simplify the traffic management. Zones are predefined sets of rules. Network interfaces and sources can be assigned to a zone. The traffic allowed depends on the network your computer is connected to and the security level this network is assigned. Firewall services are predefined rules that cover all necessary settings to allow incoming traffic for a specific service and they apply within a zone.

Services use one or more ports or addresses for network communication. Firewalls filter communication based on ports. To allow network traffic for a service, its ports must be open. firewalld blocks all traffic on ports that are not explicitly set as open. Some zones, such as trusted, allow all traffic by default.

Additional resources

firewalld(1) man page

5.1.2. Zones

⁠firewalld can be used to separate networks into different zones according to the level of trust that the user has decided to place on the interfaces and traffic within that network. A connection can only be part of one zone, but a zone can be used for many network connections.

NetworkManager notifies firewalld of the zone of an interface. You can assign zones to interfaces with:

NetworkManager
firewall-config tool
firewall-cmd command-line tool
The RHEL web console

The latter three can only edit the appropriate NetworkManager configuration files. If you change the zone of the interface using the web console, firewall-cmd or firewall-config, the request is forwarded to NetworkManager and is not handled by ⁠firewalld.

The predefined zones are stored in the /usr/lib/firewalld/zones/ directory and can be instantly applied to any available network interface. These files are copied to the /etc/firewalld/zones/ directory only after they are modified. The default settings of the predefined zones are as follows:

block: Any incoming network connections are rejected with an icmp-host-prohibited message for IPv4 and icmp6-adm-prohibited for IPv6. Only network connections initiated from within the system are possible.
dmz: For computers in your demilitarized zone that are publicly-accessible with limited access to your internal network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
drop: Any incoming network packets are dropped without any notification. Only outgoing network connections are possible.
external: For use on external networks with masquerading enabled, especially for routers. You do not trust the other computers on the network to not harm your computer. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
home: For use at home when you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
internal: For use on internal networks when you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
public: For use in public areas where you do not trust other computers on the network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.
trusted: All network connections are accepted.
work: For use at work where you mostly trust the other computers on the network. Only selected incoming connections are accepted.

One of these zones is set as the default zone. When interface connections are added to NetworkManager, they are assigned to the default zone. On installation, the default zone in firewalld is set to be the public zone. The default zone can be changed.

Note

The network zone names have been chosen to be self-explanatory and to allow users to quickly make a reasonable decision. To avoid any security problems, review the default zone configuration and disable any unnecessary services according to your needs and risk assessments.

Additional resources

` firewalld.zone(5) man page

5.1.3. Predefined services

A service can be a list of local ports, protocols, source ports, and destinations, as well as a list of firewall helper modules automatically loaded if a service is enabled. Using services saves users time because they can achieve several tasks, such as opening ports, defining protocols, enabling packet forwarding and more, in a single step, rather than setting up everything one after another.

Service configuration options and generic file information are described in the firewalld.service(5) man page. The services are specified by means of individual XML configuration files, which are named in the following format: service-name.xml. Protocol names are preferred over service or application names in firewalld.

Services can be added and removed using the graphical firewall-config tool, firewall-cmd, and firewall-offline-cmd.

Alternatively, you can edit the XML files in the /etc/firewalld/services/ directory. If a service is not added or changed by the user, then no corresponding XML file is found in /etc/firewalld/services/. The files in the /usr/lib/firewalld/services/ directory can be used as templates if you want to add or change a service.

Additional resources

firewalld.service(5) man page

5.2. Installing the `firewall-config` GUI configuration tool

To use the firewall-config GUI configuration tool, install the firewall-config package.

Procedure

Enter the following command as root:
```
# yum install firewall-config
```
Alternatively, in GNOME, use the Super key and type `Software to launch the Software Sources application. Type firewall to the search box, which appears after selecting the search button in the top-right corner. Select the Firewall item from the search results, and click on the Install button.
To run firewall-config, use either the firewall-config command or press the Super key to enter the Activities Overview, type firewall, and press Enter.

5.3. Viewing the current status and settings of `firewalld`

5.3.1. Viewing the current status of `firewalld`

The firewall service, firewalld, is installed on the system by default. Use the firewalld CLI interface to check that the service is running.

Procedure

To see the status of the service:
```
# firewall-cmd --state
```

For more information about the service status, use the systemctl status sub-command:

# systemctl status firewalld
firewalld.service - firewalld - dynamic firewall daemon
   Loaded: loaded (/usr/lib/systemd/system/firewalld.service; enabled; vendor pr
   Active: active (running) since Mon 2017-12-18 16:05:15 CET; 50min ago
     Docs: man:firewalld(1)
 Main PID: 705 (firewalld)
    Tasks: 2 (limit: 4915)
   CGroup: /system.slice/firewalld.service
           └─705 /usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/sbin/firewalld --nofork --nopid

Additional resources

It is important to know how firewalld is set up and which rules are in force before you try to edit the settings. To display the firewall settings, see Section 5.3.2, “Viewing current firewalld settings”

5.3.2. Viewing current firewalld settings

5.3.2.1. Viewing allowed services using GUI

To view the list of services using the graphical firewall-config tool, press the Super key to enter the Activities Overview, type firewall, and press Enter. The firewall-config tool appears. You can now view the list of services under the Services tab.

Alternatively, to start the graphical firewall configuration tool using the command-line, enter the following command:

$ firewall-config

The Firewall Configuration window opens. Note that this command can be run as a normal user, but you are prompted for an administrator password occasionally.

5.3.2.2. Viewing `firewalld` settings using CLI

With the CLI client, it is possible to get different views of the current firewall settings. The --list-all option shows a complete overview of the firewalld settings.

firewalld uses zones to manage the traffic. If a zone is not specified by the --zone option, the command is effective in the default zone assigned to the active network interface and connection.

To list all the relevant information for the default zone:

# firewall-cmd --list-all
public
  target: default
  icmp-block-inversion: no
  interfaces:
  sources:
  services: ssh dhcpv6-client
  ports:
  protocols:
  masquerade: no
  forward-ports:
  source-ports:
  icmp-blocks:
  rich rules:

To specify the zone for which to display the settings, add the --zone=zone-name argument to the firewall-cmd --list-all command, for example:

# firewall-cmd --list-all --zone=home
home
  target: default
  icmp-block-inversion: no
  interfaces:
  sources:
  services: ssh mdns samba-client dhcpv6-client
... [trimmed for clarity]

To see the settings for particular information, such as services or ports, use a specific option. See the firewalld manual pages or get a list of the options using the command help:

# firewall-cmd --help

Usage: firewall-cmd [OPTIONS...]

General Options
  -h, --help           Prints a short help text and exists
  -V, --version        Print the version string of firewalld
  -q, --quiet          Do not print status messages

Status Options
  --state              Return and print firewalld state
  --reload             Reload firewall and keep state information
... [trimmed for clarity]

For example, to see which services are allowed in the current zone:

# firewall-cmd --list-services
ssh dhcpv6-client

Note

Listing the settings for a certain subpart using the CLI tool can sometimes be difficult to interpret. For example, you allow the SSH service and firewalld opens the necessary port (22) for the service. Later, if you list the allowed services, the list shows the SSH service, but if you list open ports, it does not show any. Therefore, it is recommended to use the --list-all option to make sure you receive a complete information.

5.4. Starting firewalld

Procedure

To start firewalld, enter the following command as root:

# systemctl unmask firewalld
# systemctl start firewalld

To ensure firewalld starts automatically at system start, enter the following command as root:
```
# systemctl enable firewalld
```

5.5. Stopping firewalld

Procedure

To stop firewalld, enter the following command as root:
```
# systemctl stop firewalld
```
To prevent firewalld from starting automatically at system start:
```
# systemctl disable firewalld
```
To make sure firewalld is not started by accessing the firewalld D-Bus interface and also if other services require firewalld:
```
# systemctl mask firewalld
```

5.6. Runtime and permanent settings

Any changes committed in runtime mode only apply while firewalld is running. When firewalld is restarted, the settings revert to their permanent values.

To make the changes persistent across reboots, apply them again using the --permanent option. Alternatively, to make changes persistent while firewalld is running, use the --runtime-to-permanent firewall-cmd option.

If you set the rules while firewalld is running using only the --permanent option, they do not become effective before firewalld is restarted. However, restarting firewalld closes all open ports and stops the networking traffic.

Modifying settings in runtime and permanent configuration using CLI

Using the CLI, you do not modify the firewall settings in both modes at the same time. You only modify either runtime or permanent mode. To modify the firewall settings in the permanent mode, use the --permanent option with the firewall-cmd command.

# firewall-cmd --permanent <other options>

Without this option, the command modifies runtime mode.

To change settings in both modes, you can use two methods:

Change runtime settings and then make them permanent as follows:

# firewall-cmd <other options>
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent

Set permanent settings and reload the settings into runtime mode:

# firewall-cmd --permanent <other options>
# firewall-cmd --reload

The first method allows you to test the settings before you apply them to the permanent mode.

Note

It is possible, especially on remote systems, that an incorrect setting results in a user locking themselves out of a machine. To prevent such situations, use the --timeout option. After a specified amount of time, any change reverts to its previous state. Using this options excludes the --permanent option.

For example, to add the SSH service for 15 minutes:

# firewall-cmd --add-service=ssh --timeout 15m

5.7. Controlling network traffic using `firewalld`

5.7.1. Disabling all traffic in case of emergency using CLI

In an emergency situation, such as a system attack, it is possible to disable all network traffic and cut off the attacker.

Procedure

To immediately disable networking traffic, switch panic mode on:
```
# firewall-cmd --panic-on
```

Important

Enabling panic mode stops all networking traffic. From this reason, it should be used only when you have the physical access to the machine or if you are logged in using a serial console.

Switching off panic mode reverts the firewall to its permanent settings. To switch panic mode off:

# firewall-cmd --panic-off

To see whether panic mode is switched on or off, use:

# firewall-cmd --query-panic

5.7.2. Controlling traffic with predefined services using CLI

The most straightforward method to control traffic is to add a predefined service to firewalld. This opens all necessary ports and modifies other settings according to the service definition file.

Procedure

Check that the service is not already allowed:

# firewall-cmd --list-services
ssh dhcpv6-client

List all predefined services:

# firewall-cmd --get-services
RH-Satellite-6 amanda-client amanda-k5-client bacula bacula-client bitcoin bitcoin-rpc bitcoin-testnet bitcoin-testnet-rpc ceph ceph-mon cfengine condor-collector ctdb dhcp dhcpv6 dhcpv6-client dns docker-registry ...
[trimmed for clarity]

Add the service to the allowed services:

# firewall-cmd --add-service=<service-name>

Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.7.3. Controlling traffic with predefined services using GUI

To enable or disable a predefined or custom service:

Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose services are to be configured.
Select the Services tab.
Select the check box for each type of service you want to trust or clear the check box to block a service.

To edit a service:

Start the firewall-config tool.
Select Permanent from the menu labeled Configuration. Additional icons and menu buttons appear at the bottom of the Services window.
Select the service you want to configure.

The Ports, Protocols, and Source Port tabs enable adding, changing, and removing of ports, protocols, and source port for the selected service. The modules tab is for configuring Netfilter helper modules. The Destination tab enables limiting traffic to a particular destination address and Internet Protocol (IPv4 or IPv6).

Note

It is not possible to alter service settings in Runtime mode.

5.7.4. Adding new services

Services can be added and removed using the graphical firewall-config tool, firewall-cmd, and firewall-offline-cmd. Alternatively, you can edit the XML files in /etc/firewalld/services/. If a service is not added or changed by the user, then no corresponding XML file are found in /etc/firewalld/services/. The files /usr/lib/firewalld/services/ can be used as templates if you want to add or change a service.

Procedure

To add a new service in a terminal, use firewall-cmd, or firewall-offline-cmd in case of not active firewalld.

Enter the following command to add a new and empty service:
```
$ firewall-cmd --new-service=service-name
```
To add a new service using a local file, use the following command:
```
$ firewall-cmd --new-service-from-file=service-name.xml
```
You can change the service name with the additional --name=service-name option.
As soon as service settings are changed, an updated copy of the service is placed into /etc/firewalld/services/.
As root, you can enter the following command to copy a service manually:
```
# cp /usr/lib/firewalld/services/service-name.xml /etc/firewalld/services/service-name.xml
```

firewalld loads files from /usr/lib/firewalld/services in the first place. If files are placed in /etc/firewalld/services and they are valid, then these will override the matching files from /usr/lib/firewalld/services. The overriden files in /usr/lib/firewalld/services are used as soon as the matching files in /etc/firewalld/services have been removed or if firewalld has been asked to load the defaults of the services. This applies to the permanent environment only. A reload is needed to get these fallbacks also in the runtime environment.

5.7.5. Controlling ports using CLI

Ports are logical devices that enable an operating system to receive and distinguish network traffic and forward it accordingly to system services. These are usually represented by a daemon that listens on the port, that is it waits for any traffic coming to this port.

Normally, system services listen on standard ports that are reserved for them. The httpd daemon, for example, listens on port 80. However, system administrators by default configure daemons to listen on different ports to enhance security or for other reasons.

5.7.5.1. Opening a port

Through open ports, the system is accessible from the outside, which represents a security risk. Generally, keep ports closed and only open them if they are required for certain services.

Procedure

To get a list of open ports in the current zone:

List all allowed ports:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-ports
```
Add a port to the allowed ports to open it for incoming traffic:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-port=port-number/port-type
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

The port types are either tcp, udp, sctp, or dccp. The type must match the type of network communication.

5.7.5.2. Closing a port

When an open port is no longer needed, close that port in firewalld. It is highly recommended to close all unnecessary ports as soon as they are not used because leaving a port open represents a security risk.

Procedure

To close a port, remove it from the list of allowed ports:

List all allowed ports:

# firewall-cmd --list-ports
[WARNING]
====
This command will only give you a list of ports that have been opened as ports. You will not be able to see any open ports that have been opened as a service. Therefore, you should consider using the --list-all option instead of --list-ports.
====

Remove the port from the allowed ports to close it for the incoming traffic:
```
# firewall-cmd --remove-port=port-number/port-type
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.7.6. Opening ports using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall to a certain port:

Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose settings you want to change.
Select the Ports tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Port and Protocol window opens.
Enter the port number or range of ports to permit.
Select tcp or udp from the list.

5.7.7. Controlling traffic with protocols using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall using a certain protocol:

Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose settings you want to change.
Select the Protocols tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Protocol window opens.
Either select a protocol from the list or select the Other Protocol check box and enter the protocol in the field.

5.7.8. Opening source ports using GUI

To permit traffic through the firewall from a certain port:

Start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose settings you want to change.
Select the Source Port tab and click the Add button on the right-hand side. The Source Port window opens.
Enter the port number or range of ports to permit. Select tcp or udp from the list.

5.8. Working with firewalld zones

Zones represent a concept to manage incoming traffic more transparently. The zones are connected to networking interfaces or assigned a range of source addresses. You manage firewall rules for each zone independently, which enables you to define complex firewall settings and apply them to the traffic.

5.8.1. Listing zones

Procedure

To see which zones are available on your system:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-zones
```
The firewall-cmd --get-zones command displays all zones that are available on the system, but it does not show any details for particular zones.
To see detailed information for all zones:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-all-zones
```
To see detailed information for a specific zone:
```
# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-all
```

5.8.2. Modifying firewalld settings for a certain zone

The Section 5.7.2, “Controlling traffic with predefined services using CLI” and Section 5.7.5, “Controlling ports using CLI” explain how to add services or modify ports in the scope of the current working zone. Sometimes, it is required to set up rules in a different zone.

Procedure

To work in a different zone, use the --zone=zone-name option. For example, to allow the SSH service in the zone public:

# firewall-cmd --add-service=ssh --zone=public

5.8.3. Changing the default zone

System administrators assign a zone to a networking interface in its configuration files. If an interface is not assigned to a specific zone, it is assigned to the default zone. After each restart of the firewalld service, firewalld loads the settings for the default zone and makes it active.

Procedure

To set up the default zone:

Display the current default zone:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-default-zone
```

Set the new default zone:

# firewall-cmd --set-default-zone zone-name

Note

Following this procedure, the setting is a permanent setting, even without the --permanent option.

5.8.4. Assigning a network interface to a zone

It is possible to define different sets of rules for different zones and then change the settings quickly by changing the zone for the interface that is being used. With multiple interfaces, a specific zone can be set for each of them to distinguish traffic that is coming through them.

Procedure

To assign the zone to a specific interface:

List the active zones and the interfaces assigned to them:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-active-zones
```

Assign the interface to a different zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --change-interface=<interface-name>

Note

You do not have to use the --permanent option to make the setting persistent across restarts. If you set a new default zone, the setting becomes permanent.

5.8.5. Assigning a default zone to a network connection

When the connection is managed by NetworkManager, it must be aware of a zone that it uses. For every network connection, a zone can be specified, which provides the flexibility of various firewall settings according to the location of the computer with portable devices. Thus, zones and settings can be specified for different locations, such as company or home.

Procedure

To set a default zone for an Internet connection, use either the NetworkManager GUI or edit the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-connection-name file and add a line that assigns a zone to this connection:
```
ZONE=zone-name
```

5.8.6. Creating a new zone

To use custom zones, create a new zone and use it just like a predefined zone. New zones require the --permanent option, otherwise the command does not work.

Procedure

To create a new zone:

Create a new zone:
```
# firewall-cmd --new-zone=zone-name
```
Check if the new zone is added to your permanent settings:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-zones
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.8.7. Zone configuration files

Zones can also be created using a zone configuration file. This approach can be helpful when you need to create a new zone, but want to reuse the settings from a different zone and only alter them a little.

A firewalld zone configuration file contains the information for a zone. These are the zone description, services, ports, protocols, icmp-blocks, masquerade, forward-ports and rich language rules in an XML file format. The file name has to be zone-name.xml where the length of zone-name is currently limited to 17 chars. The zone configuration files are located in the /usr/lib/firewalld/zones/ and /etc/firewalld/zones/ directories.

The following example shows a configuration that allows one service (SSH) and one port range, for both the TCP and UDP protocols:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<zone>
  <short>My zone</short>
  <description>Here you can describe the characteristic features of the zone.</description>
  <service name="ssh"/>
  <port port="1025-65535" protocol="tcp"/>
  <port port="1025-65535" protocol="udp"/>
</zone>

To change settings for that zone, add or remove sections to add ports, forward ports, services, and so on.

Additional resources

For more information, see the firewalld.zone manual pages.

5.8.8. Using zone targets to set default behavior for incoming traffic

For every zone, you can set a default behavior that handles incoming traffic that is not further specified. Such behaviour is defined by setting the target of the zone. There are three options - default, ACCEPT, REJECT, and DROP. By setting the target to ACCEPT, you accept all incoming packets except those disabled by a specific rule. If you set the target to REJECT or DROP, you disable all incoming packets except those that you have allowed in specific rules. When packets are rejected, the source machine is informed about the rejection, while there is no information sent when the packets are dropped.

Procedure

To set a target for a zone:

List the information for the specific zone to see the default target:
```
$ firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-all
```

Set a new target in the zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --set-target=<default|ACCEPT|REJECT|DROP>

5.9. Using zones to manage incoming traffic depending on a source

5.9.1. Using zones to manage incoming traffic depending on a source

You can use zones to manage incoming traffic based on its source. That enables you to sort incoming traffic and route it through different zones to allow or disallow services that can be reached by that traffic.

If you add a source to a zone, the zone becomes active and any incoming traffic from that source will be directed through it. You can specify different settings for each zone, which is applied to the traffic from the given sources accordingly. You can use more zones even if you only have one network interface.

5.9.2. Adding a source

To route incoming traffic into a specific source, add the source to that zone. The source can be an IP address or an IP mask in the Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR) notation.

To set the source in the current zone:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-source=<source>
```

To set the source IP address for a specific zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-source=<source>

The following procedure allows all incoming traffic from 192.168.2.15 in the trusted zone:

Procedure

List all available zones:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-zones
```
Add the source IP to the trusted zone in the permanent mode:
```
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --add-source=192.168.2.15
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.9.3. Removing a source

Removing a source from the zone cuts off the traffic coming from it.

Procedure

List allowed sources for the required zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --list-sources

Remove the source from the zone permanently:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-source=<source>

Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.9.4. Adding a source port

To enable sorting the traffic based on a port of origin, specify a source port using the --add-source-port option. You can also combine this with the --add-source option to limit the traffic to a certain IP address or IP range.

Procedure

To add a source port:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-source-port=<port-name>/<tcp|udp|sctp|dccp>

5.9.5. Removing a source port

By removing a source port you disable sorting the traffic based on a port of origin.

Procedure

To remove a source port:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-source-port=<port-name>/<tcp|udp|sctp|dccp>

5.9.6. Using zones and sources to allow a service for only a specific domain

To allow traffic from a specific network to use a service on a machine, use zones and source. The following procedure allows traffic from 192.168.1.0/24 to be able to reach the HTTP service while any other traffic is blocked.

Procedure

List all available zones:

# firewall-cmd --get-zones
block dmz drop external home internal public trusted work

Add the source to the trusted zone to route the traffic originating from the source through the zone:
```
# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --add-source=192.168.1.0/24
```

Add the http service in the trusted zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted -add-service=http

Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

Check that the trusted zone is active and that the service is allowed in it:

# firewall-cmd --zone=trusted --list-all
trusted (active)
target: ACCEPT
sources: 192.168.1.0/24
services: http

5.9.7. Configuring traffic accepted by a zone based on a protocol

You can allow incoming traffic to be accepted by a zone based on a protocol. All traffic using the specified protocol is accepted by a zone, in which you can apply further rules and filtering.

5.9.7.1. Adding a protocol to a zone

By adding a protocol to a certain zone, you allow all traffic with this protocol to be accepted by this zone.

Procedure

To add a protocol to a zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --add-protocol=port-name/tcp|udp|sctp|dccp|igmp

Note

To receive multicast traffic, use the igmp value with the --add-protocol option.

5.9.7.2. Removing a protocol from a zone

By removing a protocol from a certain zone, you stop accepting all traffic based on this protocol by the zone.

Procedure

To remove a protocol from a zone:

# firewall-cmd --zone=zone-name --remove-protocol=port-name/tcp|udp|sctp|dccp|igmp

5.10. Configuring IP address masquerading

The following procedure describes how to enable IP masquerading on your system. IP masquerading hides individual machines behind a gateway when accessing the Internet.

Procedure

To check if IP masquerading is enabled (for example, for the external zone), enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --zone=external --query-masquerade
```
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if enabled. It prints no with exit status 1 otherwise. If zone is omitted, the default zone will be used.
To enable IP masquerading, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --zone=external --add-masquerade
```
To make this setting persistent, repeat the command adding the --permanent option.

To disable IP masquerading, enter the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --zone=external --remove-masquerade --permanent

5.11. Port forwarding

Redirecting ports using this method only works for IPv4-based traffic. For IPv6 redirecting setup, you must use rich rules.

To redirect to an external system, it is necessary to enable masquerading. For more information, see Configuring IP address masquerading.

5.11.1. Adding a port to redirect

Using firewalld, you can set up ports redirection so that any incoming traffic that reaches a certain port on your system is delivered to another internal port of your choice or to an external port on another machine.

Prerequisites

Before you redirect traffic from one port to another port, or another address, you have to know three things: which port the packets arrive at, what protocol is used, and where you want to redirect them.

Procedure

To redirect a port to another port:

# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=tcp|udp|sctp|dccp:toport=port-number

To redirect a port to another port at a different IP address:

Add the port to be forwarded:

# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=tcp|udp:toport=port-number:toaddr=IP/mask

Enable masquerade:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-masquerade
```

5.11.2. Redirecting TCP port 80 to port 88 on the same machine

Follow the steps to redirect the TCP port 80 to port 88.

Procedure

Redirect the port 80 to port 88 for TCP traffic:

# firewall-cmd --add-forward-port=port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88

Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```
Check that the port is redirected:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-all
```

5.11.3. Removing a redirected port

To remove a redirected port:

~]# firewall-cmd --remove-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=<tcp|udp>:toport=port-number:toaddr=<IP/mask>

To remove a forwarded port redirected to a different address, use the following procedure.

Procedure

Remove the forwarded port:

~]# firewall-cmd --remove-forward-port=port=port-number:proto=<tcp|udp>:toport=port-number:toaddr=<IP/mask>

Disable masquerade:
```
~]# firewall-cmd --remove-masquerade
```

5.11.4. Removing TCP port 80 forwarded to port 88 on the same machine

To remove the port redirection:

Procedure

List redirected ports:

~]# firewall-cmd --list-forward-ports
port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88:toaddr=

Remove the redirected port from the firewall::

~]# firewall-cmd  --remove-forward-port=port=80:proto=tcp:toport=88:toaddr=

Make the new settings persistent:
```
~]# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.12. Managing ICMP requests

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol that is used by various network devices to send error messages and operational information indicating a connection problem, for example, that a requested service is not available. ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP because it is not used to exchange data between systems.

Unfortunately, it is possible to use the ICMP messages, especially echo-request and echo-reply, to reveal information about your network and misuse such information for various kinds of fraudulent activities. Therefore, firewalld enables blocking the ICMP requests to protect your network information.

5.12.1. Listing and blocking ICMP requests

Listing ICMP requests

The ICMP requests are described in individual XML files that are located in the /usr/lib/firewalld/icmptypes/ directory. You can read these files to see a description of the request. The firewall-cmd command controls the ICMP requests manipulation.

To list all available ICMP types:
```
# firewall-cmd --get-icmptypes
```
The ICMP request can be used by IPv4, IPv6, or by both protocols. To see for which protocol the ICMP request is used:
```
# firewall-cmd --info-icmptype=<icmptype>
```
The status of an ICMP request shows yes if the request is currently blocked or no if it is not. To see if an ICMP request is currently blocked:
```
# firewall-cmd --query-icmp-block=<icmptype>
```

Blocking or unblocking ICMP requests

When your server blocks ICMP requests, it does not provide the information that it normally would. However, that does not mean that no information is given at all. The clients receive information that the particular ICMP request is being blocked (rejected). Blocking the ICMP requests should be considered carefully, because it can cause communication problems, especially with IPv6 traffic.

To see if an ICMP request is currently blocked:
```
# firewall-cmd --query-icmp-block=<icmptype>
```

To block an ICMP request:

# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block=<icmptype>

To remove the block for an ICMP request:

# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block=<icmptype>

Blocking ICMP requests without providing any information at all

Normally, if you block ICMP requests, clients know that you are blocking it. So, a potential attacker who is sniffing for live IP addresses is still able to see that your IP address is online. To hide this information completely, you have to drop all ICMP requests.

To block and drop all ICMP requests:

Set the target of your zone to DROP:
```
# firewall-cmd --set-target=DROP
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

Now, all traffic, including ICMP requests, is dropped, except traffic which you have explicitly allowed.

To block and drop certain ICMP requests and allow others:

Set the target of your zone to DROP:
```
# firewall-cmd --set-target=DROP
```
Add the ICMP block inversion to block all ICMP requests at once:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block-inversion
```
Add the ICMP block for those ICMP requests that you want to allow:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-icmp-block=<icmptype>
```
Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

The block inversion inverts the setting of the ICMP requests blocks, so all requests, that were not previously blocked, are blocked. Those that were blocked are not blocked. Which means that if you need to unblock a request, you must use the blocking command.

To revert the block inversion to a fully permissive setting:

Set the target of your zone to default or ACCEPT:
```
# firewall-cmd --set-target=default
```

Remove all added blocks for ICMP requests:

# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block=<icmptype>

Remove the ICMP block inversion:

# firewall-cmd --remove-icmp-block-inversion

Make the new settings persistent:
```
# firewall-cmd --runtime-to-permanent
```

5.12.2. Configuring the ICMP filter using GUI

To enable or disable an ICMP filter, start the firewall-config tool and select the network zone whose messages are to be filtered. Select the ICMP Filter tab and select the check box for each type of ICMP message you want to filter. Clear the check box to disable a filter. This setting is per direction and the default allows everything.
To edit an ICMP type, start the firewall-config tool and select Permanent mode from the menu labeled Configuration. Additional icons appear at the bottom of the Services window. Select Yes in the following dialog to enable masquerading and to make forwarding to another machine working.
To enable inverting the ICMP Filter, click the Invert Filter check box on the right. Only marked ICMP types are now accepted, all other are rejected. In a zone using the DROP target, they are dropped.

5.13. Setting and controlling IP sets using `firewalld`

To see the list of IP set types supported by firewalld, enter the following command as root.

~]# firewall-cmd --get-ipset-types
hash:ip hash:ip,mark hash:ip,port hash:ip,port,ip hash:ip,port,net hash:mac hash:net hash:net,iface hash:net,net hash:net,port hash:net,port,net

5.13.1. Configuring IP set options using CLI

IP sets can be used in firewalld zones as sources and also as sources in rich rules. In Red Hat Enterprise Linux, the preferred method is to use the IP sets created with firewalld in a direct rule.

To list the IP sets known to firewalld in the permanent environment, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --get-ipsets
```
To add a new IP set, use the following command using the permanent environment as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --new-ipset=test --type=hash:net
success
```
The previous command creates a new IP set with the name test and the hash:net type for IPv4. To create an IP set for use with IPv6, add the --option=family=inet6 option. To make the new setting effective in the runtime environment, reload firewalld.
List the new IP set with the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --get-ipsets
test
```
To get more information about the IP set, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --info-ipset=test
test
type: hash:net
options:
entries:
```
Note that the IP set does not have any entries at the moment.
To add an entry to the test IP set, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --add-entry=192.168.0.1
success
```
The previous command adds the IP address 192.168.0.1 to the IP set.
To get the list of current entries in the IP set, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --get-entries
192.168.0.1
```
Generate a file containing a list of IP addresses, for example:
```
# cat > iplist.txt <<EOL
192.168.0.2
192.168.0.3
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.2.254
EOL
```
The file with the list of IP addresses for an IP set should contain an entry per line. Lines starting with a hash, a semi-colon, or empty lines are ignored.

To add the addresses from the iplist.txt file, use the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --add-entries-from-file=iplist.txt
success

To see the extended entries list of the IP set, use the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --get-entries
192.168.0.1
192.168.0.2
192.168.0.3
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.2.254

To remove the addresses from the IP set and to check the updated entries list, use the following commands as root:

# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --remove-entries-from-file=iplist.txt
success
# firewall-cmd --permanent --ipset=test --get-entries
192.168.0.1

You can add the IP set as a source to a zone to handle all traffic coming in from any of the addresses listed in the IP set with a zone. For example, to add the test IP set as a source to the drop zone to drop all packets coming from all entries listed in the test IP set, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=drop --add-source=ipset:test
success
```
The ipset: prefix in the source shows firewalld that the source is an IP set and not an IP address or an address range.

Only the creation and removal of IP sets is limited to the permanent environment, all other IP set options can be used also in the runtime environment without the --permanent option.

Warning

Red Hat does not recommend using IP sets that are not managed through firewalld. To use such IP sets, a permanent direct rule is required to reference the set, and a custom service must be added to create these IP sets. This service needs to be started before firewalld starts, otherwise firewalld is not able to add the direct rules using these sets. You can add permanent direct rules with the /etc/firewalld/direct.xml file.

5.14. Configuring firewall lockdown

Local applications or services are able to change the firewall configuration if they are running as root (for example, libvirt). With this feature, the administrator can lock the firewall configuration so that either no applications or only applications that are added to the lockdown whitelist are able to request firewall changes. The lockdown settings default to disabled. If enabled, the user can be sure that there are no unwanted configuration changes made to the firewall by local applications or services.

5.14.1. Configuring lockdown with using CLI

To query whether lockdown is enabled, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown
```
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if lockdown is enabled. It prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To enable lockdown, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --lockdown-on
```
To disable lockdown, use the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --lockdown-off
```

5.14.2. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using CLI

The lockdown whitelist can contain commands, security contexts, users and user IDs. If a command entry on the whitelist ends with an asterisk "*", then all command lines starting with that command will match. If the "*" is not there then the absolute command including arguments must match.

The context is the security (SELinux) context of a running application or service. To get the context of a running application use the following command:
```
$ ps -e --context
```
That command returns all running applications. Pipe the output through the grep tool to get the application of interest. For example:
```
$ ps -e --context | grep example_program
```
To list all command lines that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-commands
```

To add a command command to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/bin/command'

To remove a command command from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/bin/command'

To query whether the command command is on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-command='/usr/bin/python3 -Es /usr/bin/command'
```
The command prints yes with exit status 0 if true. It prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To list all security contexts that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-contexts
```
To add a context context to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
```
To remove a context context from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
```
To query whether the context context is on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-context=context
```
Prints yes with exit status 0, if true, prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To list all user IDs that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-uids
```
To add a user ID uid to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
```
To remove a user ID uid from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
```
To query whether the user ID uid is on the whitelist, enter the following command:
```
$ firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-uid=uid
```
Prints yes with exit status 0, if true, prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.
To list all user names that are on the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --list-lockdown-whitelist-users
```
To add a user name user to the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --add-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
```
To remove a user name user from the whitelist, enter the following command as root:
```
# firewall-cmd --remove-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
```
To query whether the user name user is on the whitelist, enter the following command:
```
$ firewall-cmd --query-lockdown-whitelist-user=user
```
Prints yes with exit status 0, if true, prints no with exit status 1 otherwise.

5.14.3. Configuring lockdown whitelist options using configuration files

The default whitelist configuration file contains the NetworkManager context and the default context of libvirt. The user ID 0 is also on the list.

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
	<whitelist>
	  <selinux context="system_u:system_r:NetworkManager_t:s0"/>
	  <selinux context="system_u:system_r:virtd_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023"/>
	  <user id="0"/>
	</whitelist>

Following is an example whitelist configuration file enabling all commands for the firewall-cmd utility, for a user called user whose user ID is 815:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
	<whitelist>
	  <command name="/usr/libexec/platform-python -s /bin/firewall-cmd*"/>
	  <selinux context="system_u:system_r:NetworkManager_t:s0"/>
	  <user id="815"/>
	  <user name="user"/>
	</whitelist>

This example shows both user id and user name, but only one option is required. Python is the interpreter and is prepended to the command line. You can also use a specific command, for example:

/usr/bin/python3 /bin/firewall-cmd --lockdown-on

In that example, only the --lockdown-on command is allowed.

In Red Hat Enterprise Linux, all utilities are placed in the /usr/bin/ directory and the /bin/ directory is sym-linked to the /usr/bin/ directory. In other words, although the path for firewall-cmd when entered as root might resolve to /bin/firewall-cmd, /usr/bin/firewall-cmd can now be used. All new scripts should use the new location. But be aware that if scripts that run as root are written to use the /bin/firewall-cmd path, then that command path must be whitelisted in addition to the /usr/bin/firewall-cmd path traditionally used only for non-root users.

The * at the end of the name attribute of a command means that all commands that start with this string match. If the * is not there then the absolute command including arguments must match.

5.15. Log for denied packets

With the LogDenied option in the firewalld, it is possible to add a simple logging mechanism for denied packets. These are the packets that are rejected or dropped. To change the setting of the logging, edit the /etc/firewalld/firewalld.conf file or use the command-line or GUI configuration tool.

If LogDenied is enabled, logging rules are added right before the reject and drop rules in the INPUT, FORWARD and OUTPUT chains for the default rules and also the final reject and drop rules in zones. The possible values for this setting are: all, unicast, broadcast, multicast, and off. The default setting is off. With the unicast, broadcast, and multicast setting, the pkttype match is used to match the link-layer packet type. With all, all packets are logged.

To list the actual LogDenied setting with firewall-cmd, use the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --get-log-denied
off

To change the LogDenied setting, use the following command as root:

# firewall-cmd --set-log-denied=all
success

To change the LogDenied setting with the firewalld GUI configuration tool, start firewall-config, click the Options menu and select Change Log Denied. The LogDenied window appears. Select the new LogDenied setting from the menu and click OK.

Chapter 6. Getting started with nftables

The nftables framework enables administrators to configure packet-filtering rules used by the Linux kernel firewall.

6.1. Introduction to nftables

The nftables framework provides packet classification facilities and it is the designated successor to the iptables, ip6tables, arptables, and ebtables tools. It offers numerous improvements in convenience, features, and performance over previous packet-filtering tools, most notably:

lookup tables instead of linear processing
a single framework for both the IPv4 and IPv6 protocols
rules all applied atomically instead of fetching, updating, and storing a complete ruleset
support for debugging and tracing in the ruleset (nftrace) and monitoring trace events (in the nft tool)
more consistent and compact syntax, no protocol-specific extensions
a Netlink API for third-party applications

Similarly to iptables, nftables use tables for storing chains. The chains contain individual rules for performing actions. The nft tool replaces all tools from the previous packet-filtering frameworks. The libnftnl library can be used for low-level interaction with nftables Netlink API over the libmnl library.

In RHEL 8, nftables serve as the default firewalld back end. Although the nftables back end is backward-compatible with the previous iptables backend in firewall configurations, you can switch back to iptables by setting the FirewallBackend option to the iptables value in the /etc/firewalld/firewalld.conf file.

Effect of the modules on the nftables ruleset can be observed using the nft list ruleset command. Since these tools add tables, chains, and rules to the nftables ruleset, be aware that nftables rule-set operations, such as the nft flush ruleset command, might affect rule sets installed using the formerly separate legacy commands.

To quickly identify which variant of the tool is present, version information has been updated to include the back-end name. In RHEL 8, the nftables-based iptables tool prints the following version string:

$ iptables --version
iptables v1.8.0 (nf_tables)

For comparison, the following version information is printed if legacy iptables tool is present:

$ iptables --version
iptables v1.8.0 (legacy)

Additional resources

The nft(8) man page provides a comprehensive reference documentation for configuring and inspecting packet filtering with nftables using the nft command-line tool.

6.2. Converting iptables to nftables

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 provides the iptables-translate and ip6tables-translate tools to convert the existing iptables or ip6tables rules into the equivalent ones for nftables.

Note that some extensions lack translation support. If such an extension exists, the tool prints the untranslated rule prefixed with the # sign. For example:

| % iptables-translate -A INPUT -j CHECKSUM --checksum-fill
| nft # -A INPUT -j CHECKSUM --checksum-fill

Additionally, users can use the iptables-restore-translate and ip6tables-restore-translate tools to translate a dump of rules. Note that before that, users can use the iptables-save or ip6tables-save commands to print a dump of current rules. For example:

| % sudo iptables-save >/tmp/iptables.dump
| % iptables-restore-translate -f /tmp/iptables.dump
| # Translated by iptables-restore-translate v1.8.0 on Wed Oct 17 17:00:13 2018
| add table ip nat
| ...

For more information and a list of possible options and values, enter the iptables-translate --help command.

Legal Notice

The text of and illustrations in this document are licensed by Red Hat under a Creative Commons Attribution–Share Alike 3.0 Unported license ("CC-BY-SA"). An explanation of CC-BY-SA is available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/. In accordance with CC-BY-SA, if you distribute this document or an adaptation of it, you must provide the URL for the original version.

Red Hat, as the licensor of this document, waives the right to enforce, and agrees not to assert, Section 4d of CC-BY-SA to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law.

Red Hat, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, the Shadowman logo, the Red Hat logo, JBoss, OpenShift, Fedora, the Infinity logo, and RHCE are trademarks of Red Hat, Inc., registered in the United States and other countries.

Linux® is the registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and other countries.

Java® is a registered trademark of Oracle and/or its affiliates.

XFS® is a trademark of Silicon Graphics International Corp. or its subsidiaries in the United States and/or other countries.

MySQL® is a registered trademark of MySQL AB in the United States, the European Union and other countries.

Node.js® is an official trademark of Joyent. Red Hat is not formally related to or endorsed by the official Joyent Node.js open source or commercial project.

The OpenStack® Word Mark and OpenStack logo are either registered trademarks/service marks or trademarks/service marks of the OpenStack Foundation, in the United States and other countries and are used with the OpenStack Foundation's permission. We are not affiliated with, endorsed or sponsored by the OpenStack Foundation, or the OpenStack community.

All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

Red Hat Training

Securing networks

Configuring secured networks and network communication

Providing feedback on Red Hat documentation

Chapter 1. Using secure communications between two systems with OpenSSH

1.1. The SSH protocol

1.1.1. Reasons for using SSH

1.1.2. Main features

1.1.3. Protocol versions

1.1.4. Event sequence of an SSH connection

1.1.4.1. Transport layer

1.1.4.2. Authentication

1.1.4.3. Channels

1.2. Setting up OpenSSH using configuration files

1.3. Starting an OpenSSH server

1.3.1. Configuring the OpenSSH server keys generation

1.4. Requiring SSH for remote connections

1.5. Using key-based authentication

1.5.1. Generating key pairs

1.6. Related information

Chapter 2. Planning and implementing TLS

2.1. SSL and TLS protocols

Additional resources

2.2. Security considerations for TLS in RHEL 8

2.2.1. Protocols

2.2.2. Cipher suites

2.2.3. Public key length

Additional resources

2.3. Hardening TLS configuration in applications

2.3.1. Configuring the Apache HTTP server

2.3.2. Configuring the Nginx HTTP and proxy server

2.3.3. Configuring the Dovecot mail server

Additional resources

Chapter 3. Configuring a VPN with IPsec

3.1. Libreswan as an IPsec VPN implementation

3.2. Installing Libreswan

Prerequisites

Procedure

3.3. Creating a host-to-host VPN

Procedure

3.4. Configuring a site-to-site VPN

Prerequisites

Procedure

3.5. Configuring a remote access VPN

3.6. Configuring a mesh VPN

Prerequisites

Procedure

3.7. Methods of authentication used in Libreswan

3.8. Related information

Chapter 4. Configuring MACsec

4.1. Introduction to MACsec

4.2. Using MACsec with nmcli tool

Prerequisites

Procedure

4.3. Using MACsec with wpa_supplicant

Procedure

4.4. Related information

Chapter 5. Using and configuring firewalls

5.1. Getting started with firewalld

5.1.1. firewalld

Additional resources

5.1.2. Zones

Additional resources

5.1.3. Predefined services

Additional resources

5.2. Installing the firewall-config GUI configuration tool

Procedure

5.3. Viewing the current status and settings of firewalld

5.3.1. Viewing the current status of firewalld

Procedure

Additional resources

5.3.2. Viewing current firewalld settings

5.3.2.1. Viewing allowed services using GUI

5.3.2.2. Viewing firewalld settings using CLI

5.4. Starting firewalld

Procedure

5.5. Stopping firewalld

Procedure

5.6. Runtime and permanent settings

5.7. Controlling network traffic using firewalld

1.1. The `SSH` protocol

1.1.4. Event sequence of an `SSH` connection

1.2. Setting up `OpenSSH` using configuration files

2.3.1. Configuring the `Apache HTTP server`

2.3.2. Configuring the `Nginx` HTTP and proxy server

5.1. Getting started with `firewalld`

5.2. Installing the `firewall-config` GUI configuration tool

5.3. Viewing the current status and settings of `firewalld`

5.3.1. Viewing the current status of `firewalld`

5.3.2.2. Viewing `firewalld` settings using CLI

5.7. Controlling network traffic using `firewalld`